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Article

Vegetation, Architecture, and Human Activities: Reconstructing Land Use History from the Late Yangshao Period in Zhengzhou Region, Central China

by
Xia Wang
1,
Junjie Xu
2,*,
Duowen Mo
3,
Hui Wang
4 and
Peng Lu
1
1
Institute of Geography, Henan Academy of Sciences, Zhengzhou 450052, China
2
School of Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
3
Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
4
Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing 100710, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2025, 14(2), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020321
Submission received: 31 December 2024 / Revised: 26 January 2025 / Accepted: 30 January 2025 / Published: 5 February 2025
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Abstract

:
In recent decades, a large number of houses from the Late Yangshao period have been excavated in Zhengzhou. They are basically single-level buildings with wood skeletons and mud walls and use a huge amount of timber resources. Nevertheless, there are still a lot of questions about the uncertain relationship between plants, architecture, and human activities. In this study, we complete the reconstruction of a Holocene vegetation community around the Dahecun site via pollen analysis of the Z2 core. We take house F1 in Dahecun as an example to estimate the wood consumption of a single house and collect the published data of all houses from the Late Yangshao period in the study area to estimate the wood consumption of houses built in Zhengzhou during this period. Combining the above two approaches, this study explores the relationship between plants, architecture, and human activities in Zhengzhou in the Late Yangshao period, as well as the history of land use. The results are as follows: (1) After 4.9 ka BP, the number of trees and shrubs such as Pinus (falling from 58.8% to 46.9%) decreased rapidly, and the number of herbaceous plants increased. (2) Excluding the influence of the Holocene climate change, the large-scale decline in trees and shrubs in the region is likely to have been human-driven. The number of excavated houses in 11 of the 236 Late Yangshao sites in the Zhengzhou area reached 362, while the minimum wood consumption reached 1270.62 m3. In addition, the rapid expansion of the population size and the large-scale development of new arable land and forest clearance in the Late Yangshao period show that humans had a strong influence on the surrounding vegetation and land cover/use. The trend of regional deforestation was so obvious and irreversible that the inhabitants had to adopt techniques using less wood or no wood to build houses during the subsequent Longshan culture period.

1. Introduction

In the Late Yangshao period, the Zhengzhou region (Figure 1) of the Central Plain witnessed radical socio-economic transformation. Such changes were characterized by an unprecedented rise in earthen-walled settlements, the appearance of multi-circled moats, and an increasing number of large houses [1,2].
Underpinning these socio-economic discourses were agricultural developments and intensifying land use patterns that denote the exploitation of a wide range of natural resources in diverse habitats and landscapes [3,4,5,6].
The construction of settlements and early slash-and-burn farming methods dramatically changed the prehistoric vegetation and landscape. Intensified human activities gradually transformed the landscape around the settlements from forest to grassland and shrubland, allowing light-demanding vegetation to thrive due to extended canopy gaps. Prehistoric inhabitants cleared the forests around the settlements to obtain new arable land and wood resources [7].
Whilst several paleo-ecological studies have demonstrated the impact of increasing human activities on the natural environment surrounding the Late Yangshao period sites in Zhengzhou [8,9,10], especially the trend of deforestation or vegetative changes caused by intensified economic activities, there is a lack of systematic investigation that addresses the process and quantifies the scale of human-induced vegetation changes surrounding these Late Yangshao period settlements in the studied region. More importantly, there is a lack of integration between archaeological data and environmental data in evaluating the impact of anthropogenic activities on Holocene vegetation in the region.
Vegetation, as an essential component of ecosystems, plays a pivotal role in sustaining human life. The procurement of basic necessities such as clothing, food, shelter, and transportation is intrinsically linked to plant resources. Simultaneously, human activities that exploit vegetation, including agricultural practices and construction, significantly alter the surrounding environment. For example, these activities often lead to noticeable changes in land cover. Alterations in land use types, patterns, and intensities have profound implications for ecosystem services (ESs), which in turn critically influence the long-term development and sustainability of both natural environments and human societies [11,12,13].
This article aims to reconstruct land use history regarding the construction, maintenance, and expansion of Middle–Late Yangshao period settlements and quantify the impact of intensified human activities on the vegetation in the local environment. We make the hypothesis that there is a direct positive relationship between increasing construction activities at and around these Late Yangshao period sites and increasing deforestation.
Pollen analysis shows that the decline in prehistoric forests is often linked to climate change [14,15,16]. In fact, prehistoric human activities also have an important impact on vegetation characteristics. Especially in the Songshan region of Central China, an important area where the Chinese civilization originated, the relationship between prehistoric vegetation evolution and human activities is still unclear. Here, we provide evidence of the sharp decline in forests in the Central Plains from the perspective of the region and the Dahecun (Figure 1) site and demonstrate that this sharp decline in forests is closely related to human activities.
Anthropocene research also pays great attention to the impact of early human activities on the environment. Our research results provide good data and a basis for Anthropocene research.

1.1. Settlement Structure and Architectural Technologies of the Late Yangshao Zhengzhou Region

This section covers the chronological sequence of culture and the number of settlements in the Yangshao culture period of the Zhengzhou region.
According to the latest chronometric dating data, Yangshao culture lasted for about 2000 years in the Yellow River basin (7–5 ka BP). In Henan, it can be divided into Early, Middle, and Late stages: Early Yangshao (7–5.9 ka BP), Middle Yangshao (6–5.1 ka BP), and Late Yangshao (5.7–4.7 ka BP) [17].
The latest archaeological excavations and investigation results show that there are at least 236 Yangshao settlements (Figure 2) in the study area [18,19,20]. Most of the settlements in the Zhengzhou area are of the Qinwangzhai/Dahecun type in the Late Yangshao period. Moreover, the settlements from the Late Yangshao period far exceeded the previous period in terms of number and scale. For example, the Shuangji River Basin in Zhengzhou has 11 settlements from the Middle Yangshao culture period, with settlement sizes ranging from 0.14 to 11.63 ha. In contrast, there are 36 settlements from the Late Yangshao, with settlement sizes ranging from 0.26 to 100 ha [18,19]. The same phenomenon occurs in the Luoyang Basin [20], adjacent to Zhengzhou. The number of Middle Yangshao settlements is 77, while the number of Late Yangshao settlements is 146, and there are 14 large central settlements, with sizes ranging from 20 to 68 ha. These findings indicate that the Late Yangshao Period in Zhengzhou witnessed a very vigorous population growth, thereby resulting in an increased demand for natural resources and an expanded influence on the surrounding environment of the settlements by the prehistoric inhabitants.

1.2. Structure and Tier of Settlements from Late Yangshao in Zhengzhou Region

Different from the two-level settlements that prevailed in the Late Yangshao period in the adjacent areas [20], the structure and tier of Late Yangshao settlements in Zhengzhou were more complicated. Based on the size of the settlements, the Late Yangshao settlements in Zhengzhou can be divided into three levels (Figure 3): above 100 ha, 30–50 ha, and below 10 ha. The Shuanghuaishu site [21] (Figure 1) is the largest and only settlement, exceeding 100 ha in area, with a total size of 117 ha. Sites like Dahecun [22,23,24,25], Qingtai [26,27], Wanggou [6], and Xishan [28] (Figure 1) are secondary settlements. From the perspective of the individual settlement structure, the core settlements, such as Shuanghuaishu and the secondary site, all have multiple ring moats, large row houses (wood skeleton and mud-walled grounding house), pottery kilns, burial areas, squares, and possible sacrificial remains. Special settlements like Xishan have the earliest city walls in the Central Plains. The sizes of the third-level and basic settlements are often less than 10 ha: for example, Xishizhao [29], Linshanzhai [30], Zhanmatun [31], Houzhuangwang [32], Dianjuntai [33], Fangjinzhai [34], and Chuwan sites [35] (Figure 1). The emergence of large settlements and city sites represents the dawn of prehistoric civilization in the development of regional societies. The large-scale ring moats, houses, and public buildings in the core settlements cannot be characterized by a single settlement. The division of labor and coordination of the populations between settlements is required.

1.3. Introduction of Dahecun Site

The Dahecun site (Figure 1), situated on an alluvial plain of Northeastern Zhengzhou, is bisected into eastern and western sections by an ancient riverbed that flows in a southwest–northeast direction. The site is 2.5 km to the north of the Jialu River and 7.5 km away from the Yellow River [22,23,24,25]. According to remains from the Yangshao culture and passing through the Longshan culture, the Erlitou culture, and the Shang culture, the Dahecun site has endured for as long as 3300 years. The site has an area of 53 ha and is one of the largest Late Yangshao settlements in this region. An elliptical moat encompasses the site. The existing excavation data demonstrate that the scale of the Dahecun site reached its maximum during the Late Yangshao culture. Moreover, in the later period of the Late Yangshao culture, a rectangular city wall was found in the core area of the site, which was constructed by ramming and covered an area of 30 ha. The Dahecun site has undergone 25 excavations since its discovery in 1963, with a total excavation area of approximately 7000 m2. The central part of the site was the residential area of the Yangshao inhabitants, where house foundations were superimposed and storage pits were dense. Fifty-seven houses have been unearthed in previous excavations. Except for one house site from the Middle Yangshao culture and one from the Longshan culture, the other 55 wood skeleton and mud-walled grounding houses are all from the Late Yangshao culture. Among them, the house sites of F1–F4 (Figure 4a) are the best-preserved, and the 14C dating result is 5040 ± 100 a BP [22].

1.4. Architectural Technologies: The Maturation of the Wood Skeleton and Mud Walls Technology and the Emergence of Large Row Houses and Individual Buildings

Since the Neolithic Age, with the establishment of the sedentary lifestyle, the architecture for human habitation has witnessed considerable progress. During the Yangshao culture, ground buildings rose and became prevalent, among which the construction method of wood skeletons and mud walls was the most typical construction technique. The specific construction approach is as follows: foundation trenches are excavated on the ground, and then densely arranged columns are embedded. The crossbeams between the columns are fixed on both sides by binding with reed bundles. The wooden frame is coated with a mixture of grass and mud on the outside, and fine sand–mixed mud is applied to both the interior and exterior of the walls to form a wood skeleton and mud wall. After the walls and the indoor floor have completely dried, baking is carried out both inside and outside the house to form a relatively hard red surface layer on the walls and the floor surface. Finally, the purlins are erected, and roofing boards are laid on the roof, which are subsequently covered with mud and hay. Many scholars have tried to restore and reconstruct the construction process of wood skeletons and mud walls during the Yangshao culture period [36,37]. Therefore, the structure and appearance of the wood skeleton and mud walls house are widely well-known.
The wood skeleton and mud walls technology reached its mature and peak stage in the Late Yangshao culture. A large number of single ground buildings and row houses emerged in the Yangshao and Qujialing cultural sites in the Yellow River region and the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, such as the Dahecun site, the Shuanghuaishu site, the Xiawanggang site [38], and the Diaolongbei site [39] in Hubei. In summary, the advanced development and widespread implementation of this construction technology undoubtedly resulted in the utilization of wood reaching a zenith during the Late Yangshao period since the Neolithic Age.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sampling and Dating

In the spring of 2008, a sediment core Z2 334 cm in length was obtained in the residential yard several tens of meters southwest of the Dahecun site. The lithology from top to bottom is as follows:
①: A total of 0–38 cm in depth. Fine sand, with yellowish-black mottled colors, interspersed with cultural relics such as pottery sherds and red-burned soil blocks.
②: A total of 38–78 cm in depth. Grayish-yellow clayey silt, fine sand mixed with dark gray clay lumps. Some samples contain red-burned soil blocks.
③: A total of 78–124 cm in depth. Dark gray silty clay or clayey silt, often containing red-burned soil residues.
④: A total of 124–262 cm in depth. Variegated fine sand intercalated with coarse sand lumps. Some samples contain more charcoal chips and red-burned soil blocks.
⑤: A total of 262–324 cm in depth. Grayish-yellow clayey fine sand intercalated with coarse sand and fine sand lumps. The lower part is black, and there are also larger calcium nodules. The bottom contains a large quantity of red-burned soil blocks.
⑥: A total of 324–334 cm in depth. Coarse sand, with root holes and a considerable number of charcoal chips.
Four AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) radiocarbon dates were obtained from the core Z2 by the Xi’an Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Center at depths of 106 cm, 172 cm, 270 cm, and 306 cm. The 14C age is calibrated using the OxCal v3.10 [40,41], and dates are quoted in calibrated years BP. Radiocarbon dating results are shown in Table 1.

2.2. Laboratory Methods

In total, one hundred and sixty-seven samples were extracted at 2 cm intervals for palynological investigation. Spores and pollen grains were allocated to four categories: trees and shrubs, herbs, ferns, and algae. Calculation of relative abundance and pollen diagram plotting were carried out using TILIA 1.7.16 and TILIA.GRAPH [42]. Division of the core into pollen zones was based on the results of a Constrained Incremental Sums of Squares (CONISS) cluster analysis conducted in TILIA.
The squares of the excavated houses in the Dahecun site of Yangshao culture were basically between 3 and 122 m2 and mainly ranged from 10 to 30 m2 (Table 2). The excavation findings reveal that the majority of the houses were rather severely damaged, with F1-F4 (Figure 4) being the best preserved, among which F1 was representative. F1 was a rectangular ground-based wood skeleton and mud wall building, the length from north to south is 5.2 m, and the width from east to west is 4 m, covering an area of 20.8 m2. Apart from the two locations that were damaged by ash pits, the foundation and some parts of the walls were well preserved. The walls on the east, west, and north sides were the best preserved among them; they were 0.5 to 1 m higher than the floor of the house, and the thickness of the walls was about 0.3 to 0.5 m. Inside F1, there was a suite with an inbuilt fire pit [22]. A restoration model of wood skeleton and mud walls is exhibited at Dahecun Museum as origination of F1 (Figure 4b). Both in terms of area and construction technique, F1 was highly representative. In this study, we use F1 as the benchmark, collect all of the wood skeleton and mud wall houses, and estimate the wood consumption in Late Yangshao culture of Zhengzhou region. In this study, we count pillars, beams, and roofing boards to calculate the wood consumption of the entire house in F1. For example, we use the four walls of F1 as squares to measure minimum wood consumption. Referring to the results of Yang and He [36,38], we hypothesize that the structure of the F1 roof is as shown in Figure 5: the angle between the roof and the wall is 45°, and there are no purlins. The total wood consumption of F1 (Vt) is a sum of pillar (Vpi), beam (Vb), and roofing board (Vrb) (Figure 4c).
Vt = Vpi + Vb + Vrb

3. Results

3.1. Age

An age-depth model (Figure 6) for the studied Dahecun Z2 core was constructed using the Bayesian age-depth modeling software rcarbon 1.5.1 in R [43,44] based on four AMS 14C dates (Table 1).

3.2. Pollen Assemblages and Vegetation Composition

In total, 88 taxa of palynomorphs were identified in all pollen samples, belonging to 57 families, among which 56 types could be identified at the genus level. Based on the relative abundance of the dominant taxa and a cluster analysis of all taxa using CONISS, the Z2 core was divided into four distinct palynological zones (PZ, Figure 7). The features of each zone are described as follows:
PZ1 (334–271 cm; 9.8–9.2 cal. ka BP): The mean relative abundances of trees and shrubs (85.9%) is the highest encountered in the three zones and mainly comprise Pinus (53.9%) and Betula (18.9%). The mean relative abundances of terrestrial herbaceous plants (9.0%) are the lowest in the three zones and are dominated by Artemisia (3.4%), Chenopodiaceae (2.4%), and Poaceae (1.1%). Furthermore, there are a small number of aquatic herbaceous plants Myriophyllum (0.6%), ferns Polypodiaceae (3.4%), Pteris (0.2%), Selaginella (0.2%), and algae Concentricystes (0.2%).
PZ2 (270–129 cm; 9.2–6.1 cal. ka BP): In this zone, the main characteristic is a decrease in trees and shrubs (falling to 77.6%) and an increase in terrestrial herbaceous plants (up to 13.8%), aquatic herbaceous plants (up to 2.4%), ferns (up to 5.8%), and algae (up to 0.4%). The mean relative abundances of Pinus (58.0%) and Tsuga (5.5%) increase, while the mean relative abundances of Betula (4.6%) decrease significantly. Herbaceous plants are still mainly composed of Artemisia (4.7%), Chenopodiaceae (3.5%), and Poaceae (2.8%), and their mean relative abundances all increase.
PZ3 (128–91 cm; 6.1–4.9 cal. ka BP): The major feature of this zone is the mean relative abundances of trees and shrubs (78.2%), terrestrial herbaceous plants (13.7%), ferns (6.5%), and algae (0.6%), which are similar to the preceding stage, with a decrease in aquatic herbaceous plants (falling to 1.1%). There is a notable increase in Abies pollen (from 3.2% up to 6.1%), accompanied by a decrease in Myriophyllum spores (from 2.0% falling to 0.9%).
PZ4 (90–1 cm; after 4.9 cal. ka BP): In this zone, the most distinctive characteristic is the notable decrease in trees and shrubs (falling to 62.9%), especially Pinus (from 58.8% falling to 46.9%) and Tsuga (from 6.1% falling to 1.2%). The mean relative abundances of terrestrial herbaceous plants (up to 28.8%) increase obviously, such as Apiaceae (up to 1.1%), Artemisia (up to 13.2%), Chenopodiaceae (up to 8.0%), and Poaceae (up to 2.8%).

3.3. Wood Consumption in Late Yangshao Culture Period, Zhengzhou Region

We set all the pillars to be cylindrical. The diameter of the hole of the pillar in F1 of the Dahecun site is about 8–12 cm [22], and we take the middle value of 10 cm. Pillar not only exists above the ground but also deep underground. The length of the pillar underground is mostly 70–120 cm [22]; we take the middle value of 100 cm. The above-ground portion of the pillar depends on the height of the house. According to Wang’s physical anthropological research on the human bones of the Yangshao cemetery [45], it is believed that the height of humans at that time was about 167–170 cm. We set the height of the house at 170 cm.
Vpi = 81 × (1.7 + 1) × π × (0.05)2 = 1.72 m3
The diameter of the beam bundled on both sides of the pillar is 4–6 cm [22]. We take the median value of 5 cm. The upper and lower intervals of two beams are about 10 cm. Underground height of the house is estimated at 170 cm; we inferred that 9 beams are needed on one side.
Vb = 2 × 9 × 5.2 × π × (0.025)2 + 2 × 9 × 4 × π × (0.025)2 = 0.32 m3
According to the thickness of the roofing board of F15 at Wangwan site [46] and F38 Yuchisi [47], its thickness is about 5 cm, referring to the setting and size of the F1 roofing board (Figure 4).
Vrb = 2 × 4 × 3.68 × 0.05 = 1.47 m3
There are a total of 236 settlements in the Yangshao period in Zhengzhou area, and a total of 362 houses were excavated and distributed in 11 sites (Table 3). If the F1 consumption of wood is taken as the basic unit, the minimum consumption of wood for house construction in the 11 sites in the Late Yangshao period is 1270.62 m3.

4. Discussion

4.1. The History of Vegetation Succession and Climate Change Since 9.8 cal. ka BP in the Zhengzhou Region of the Central Plain

The vegetation succession and climate change have undergone four stages of alteration in the Zhengzhou region since 9.8 ka BP. Based on the relative abundance of dominant taxa (Figure 7) and their ecological preferences, it is notable the vegetation is characterized by a mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest from PZ1 to PZ4. However, the community composition and dominant components differ between them. For example, the vegetation community is mainly composed of Pinus and Betula in PZ1, the relative abundances of cold-tolerant taxa Abies and Picea are strikingly low, along with the low relative abundances of hygrophilous taxa Tsuga and Alnus and aquatic herbaceous plants, suggesting a warm and rather dry condition. In PZ2, the vegetation is mostly dominated by Pinus, Tsuga, and Betula, together with sharp decreases in the relative abundance of Betula; nevertheless, the relative abundances of herbaceous plants (mainly comprising Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, and Poaceae) and ferns increase. The relative abundances of cold-tolerant taxa remain at a low level, while the relative abundances of hygrophilous taxa Tsuga and Alnus increase, indicating a warm and humid condition compared with the last stage. The vegetation in PZ3 is mostly dominated by Pinus, Abies, Tsuga, and Betula, and a distinct increase in the relative abundance of cold-tolerant taxa Abies and the relative abundances of hygrophilous taxa Tsuga and Alnus, as well as aquatic herbaceous plants, remains relatively high, demonstrating the climate is colder than PZ2. The main characteristic of PZ4 is a sharp decrease in the relative abundances of trees and shrubs, while herbaceous plants increase significantly. The relative abundances of cold-tolerant taxa Abies and Picea in this zone are the highest among the four zones. However, the relative abundances of hygrophilous taxa Tsuga and Alnus, as well as aquatic herbs, are extremely low, indicating dry and cool conditions. In PZ4, the relative abundance of the Apiaceae, a plant associated with human beings, reaches its peak in the core, demonstrating that human activities were intense during this stage.

4.2. Deforestation, Vegetation, and Ecosystem: Is There an Early Anthropocene in Mid-Holocene Central Plains?

The results of pollen analysis from the Z2 borehole indicate that the content of trees and shrubs in the Zhengzhou area has decreased sharply since 4.9 ka BP. This reflects the beginning of the process of deforestation in the region. In general, the sudden decrease in forest cover is related to climatic change or human activities, and we argue the reason behind the deforestation in this region from 4.9 ka BP.
The Holocene temperature reconstruction from the snail records [48], the δ18O record of the stalagmite in Dongge Cave [49] of the monsoon intensity, and the synthesized Northern Hemisphere (30–90° N) temperature record [50] suggest that the Holocene was in a high-temperature period of 9–4 ka BP. The precipitation reconstruction from the Gonghai Lake of Shanxi Province [51], Chinese Loess Plateau [52], and Central Asia [53] suggests that 7–3.3 ka BP is the period of the highest precipitation in the Holocene. In summary, the period of high temperatures and high humidity in the Late Yangshao period (5.7–4.7 ka BP) in the Zhengzhou area did not lead to the rapid decline of trees and shrubs due to extreme drought and other events. During the Middle Holocene, the Zhengzhou area was located on the northern edge of the northern subtropics, and coniferous and broad-leaved trees such as Pinus did not undergo deforestation due to a little climatic fluctuation (Figure 8).
Instead of climatic changes, human activity may have played a vital role in the mid-Holocene forest decline in the Zhengzhou region. To understand this question, we should look for new evidence and re-examine human activity in the Zhengzhou area during this period.
Some studies have shown that the number of prehistoric settlements in Zhengzhou reached its peak in the Yangshao period [1], with a total of 236 settlements, mainly in the Late Middle and Late Yangshao periods, and their absolute ages are basically concentrated between 5.3 and 4.7 ka BP [17]. The size of the settlements shows a clear classification. Among these sites, there is more than 117 ha of Shuanghuaishu site. There are also 53 ha square meters of sites such as the Dahecun site and some small sites, such as Chuwan.
Since the Middle Yangshao period (6 ka BP), agriculture has dominated the Central Plains, with ancestors cultivating millet and rice, as well as raising domestic pigs [54,55]. This was followed by a rapid increase in population, reaching its peak [56]. The results of the carbonized plant isotope study in Dahecun show that in order to cope with the expansion of population size, in addition to adopting intensive agricultural planting strategies, inhabitants are also actively exploring new arable land to feed more people [57].
With the expansion of the scale of the settlement and the increase in population, a large number of wood skeletons and mud-walled buildings began to appear in the Late Yangshao period. The number of excavated housing sites in only 11 sites reached 362, and the minimum wood consumption reached 1270.62 m3. Studies have shown that trees such as Quercus acutissima, Eucommia ulmoides, Cupressus funebris, and Cudrania tricuspidata were the tree species used by inhabitants to build houses during the Yangshao period [39,58].

4.3. Pollen, Charcoal, and Other Proxy Approaches Indicated Deforestation in Late Yangshao Period

Much has been done on prehistoric deforestation in China. Li et al. analyzed the pollen of boreholes in Eastern Hebei Province and concluded that the decline in Ulmus around 5 ka BP reflected the impact of human activities on vegetation and the trend of deforestation [59].
Micro-charcoal analysis, often linked with the frequency of fires (wildfires/human-use fires), climate, vegetation, and human disturbance during the Holocene, is used as an indicator of human activities [60,61,62,63,64,65].
In Northern China, based on the AP (arboreal pollen) data and charcoal record analysis, Ren et al. and Hou et al. believe that forest decline occurred in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River at 5 ka BP [66,67]. Ren argues that climate changes could hardly account for the temporal and spatial patterns of forest decline. Instead, he argues that the anthropogenic disturbance may have been of overwhelming importance. They all attribute the cause of deforestation to agriculture and high-density settlement expansion. Combined pollen and charcoal data of drill sediments from Mayinghai Lake in Loess Plateau, Ren et al. found that a long-term decline in tree pollen and an increase in herb (Artemisia and Amaranthaceae) and cereal-type Poaceae appeared from 4.8 ka BP [68]. In contrast with pollen analysis, the charcoal concentration reached the peak value during this time. Against the background of warm and humid climate, they proposed that the human-drive deforestation started from 4.8 ka BP.
In Southern China, Dodson and Li found deforestation in Southern China ranging from 6 to 5 ka BP through an analysis of population expansion and anthropogenic methane emissions. They attributed the reason to the expansion of rice paddies, thus triggering the major forest clearance. The same deforestation event from 5 ka BP occurred in Taiwan, China. According to the results of vegetation reconstruction via pollen and charcoal, Rahman found a decline in forests and expansion of wetlands and high-intensified human fires instead of wildfires from 5 ka BP. They proposed that the spread of rice agriculture in Taiwan and intensified population activities might be the reason behind the decline in trees and herbs.

4.4. Deforestation and Its Impact on Ecosystem, Shift of House Pattern After Late Yangshao Period in China, Prospects

The Holocene has seen sometimes gradual and sometimes abrupt changes from forest dynamics driven by natural forces to those dominated by human impacts on forest composition. Hence, it is often difficult to disentangle natural or anthropogenic controls of forest composition. In this study, we see the phenomenon of long-term forest decline and gradual increase in herbs. The trend of tree decline did not change with the climate fluctuations in the Middle Holocene, which suggests that deforestation from 4.9 ka BP. in the Zhengzhou Region is driven by human activities.
Although the dominance of agriculture in the Central Plains was established in middle Yangshao culture (6 ka BP), the vegetation composition did not show significant changes in this study. In the Late Yangshao period, as the population expanded, the human demand for food and house construction increased. Studies have shown that prehistoric humans needed 1.6 ha of arable land for maintenance. The land use rate in the Late Yangshao period reached 33%, and the individual areas reached 49%. The land use rate in the middle Yangshao period was 24%, which caused great pressure on the environment [69]. According to research by Hou et al. [67], 37,000 km2 of land was reclaimed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, while 132,000 km2 of land was affected by agricultural activities in the Late Yangshao period. We can speculate from the above information that sedentary life and agricultural practices contributed to the rapid growth of the prehistoric population. After 1000 years of accumulation, the prehistoric population of the Central Plains reached its peak. This led to the development of agriculture, whether it was advances in agricultural technology or the expansion of arable land. Irrigation, fertilization, and the reclamation of wasteland became common phenomena in the Late Yangshao period, which was proven by isotope studies. Prehistoric habitants cleared and burnt down the forest to gain arable land, as well as wood resources for house construction and fuel. The wood-skeleton and mud-walled architecture, which was widely popular in Northern China in the Late Yangshao, also required a lot of wood consumption. Both coincided with human activities that accelerated deforestation in the Zhengzhou region.
Deforestation changes the land cover and landscape. The direct consequences of this can be divided into three aspects: first, plant diversity is threatened, a large number of forests are deforested, and the proportion of crops and a large number of companion plants such as Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, and Poaceae is rapidly increasing. The second is the aggravation of soil erosion [70,71]. Third, during the Longshan culture period, the wood skeleton and mud-walled buildings in the Central Plains were relatively rare to see, and they were replaced with house buildings with rammed earth walls and constructions utilizing the piled mud–grass mixed wall technique. The same phenomenon also appeared outside the Central Plains, and in the Loess Plateau, there were cave dwelling houses [72,73]. There was a shortage of timber resources, which prompted the inhabitants to change their house-building techniques [74].
Deforestation in prehistorical China has been identified in several places and is often associated with highly intensified human activities [10]. There are also differences in time and space. The middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River showed a trend of deforestation at about 5 ka BP., while deforestation occurred later in other areas. The Pearl River Basin showed an abrupt decline of trees around 2 ka BP., coinciding with some studies that have shown that inhabitants in the Pearl River Basin directly changed from hunter–gatherer to agricultural livelihood before and after 2 ka BP. This suggests that deforestation has a strong correlation with economic development.
Although we have reconstructed the regional Holocene vegetation evolution process and confirmed the Late Yangshao deforestation through intensified human activities in this paper, there are still some shortcomings. First, the species of wood needed for the different components of the house were not identified. Second, the proportion of wood fuel in wood consumption needs to be confirmed. Macro/micro-charcoal analysis is an important method for obtaining human activities, and we hope to strengthen it in future research.

5. Conclusions

Based on sedimentary pollen analysis of drill Z2 at the Dahecun site and the estimated wood consumption of house building in the Late Yangshao period in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China, we reconstruct vegetation through Holocene and argue for the relationships between vegetation, architecture, and human activities. Our result shows that the vegetation is characterized by a mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest starting in 9.8 ka BP in the Zhengzhou region. The community composition and dominant components have undergone four stages of alteration. From 9.8 to 9.2 ka BP, the vegetation community was mainly composed of Pinus and Betula. Between 9.2 and 6.1 ka BP, Pinus, Tsuga, and Betula became the predominant species. From 6.1 to 4.9 ka BP, the dominance shifted to Pinus, Abies, Tsuga, and Betula. After 4.9 ka BP, there was a marked decline in trees and shrubs, which may be attributed to population expansion, high intensification of agriculture, and house-building patterns. The study area mainly suggests that human activities and environmental pressures have significantly altered the ecosystem, leading to irreversible changes in vegetation dynamics and the shift of house-building patterns in prehistoric China.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization/methodology/formal analysis/validation, J.X. and X.W.; software, X.W.; formal analysis, J.X. and X.W.; investigation, J.X., D.M., H.W. and P.L.; resources/data curation, J.X.; writing—original draft preparation/review and editing, J.X. and X.W.; visualization, X.W.; supervision/project administration, J.X.; funding acquisition, X.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study is supported by National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant No. 2020YFC1521605), Natural Science Foundation of Henan (grant No. 222300420193) and the Basic Research Foundation of Henan Academy of Sciences (grant No. 220601028).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of Dahecun and other important Late Yangshao sites in Zhenghzou region (1. Dahecun; 2. Xishizhao; 3. Xishan; 4. Linshanzhai; 5. Zhanmatun; 6. Houzhuangwang; 7. Dianjuntai; 8. Qingtai; 9. Fangjinzhai; 10. Chuwan; 11. Shuanghuaishu).
Figure 1. Location of Dahecun and other important Late Yangshao sites in Zhenghzou region (1. Dahecun; 2. Xishizhao; 3. Xishan; 4. Linshanzhai; 5. Zhanmatun; 6. Houzhuangwang; 7. Dianjuntai; 8. Qingtai; 9. Fangjinzhai; 10. Chuwan; 11. Shuanghuaishu).
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Figure 2. The distribution of Middle and Late Yangshao settlements in Zhengzhou region.
Figure 2. The distribution of Middle and Late Yangshao settlements in Zhengzhou region.
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Figure 3. Three–level settlements of Late Yangshao culture in Zhengzhou Region (SS short of settlement square).
Figure 3. Three–level settlements of Late Yangshao culture in Zhengzhou Region (SS short of settlement square).
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Figure 4. Houses F1–F4 and restoration model of the wood skeleton and mud walls at Dahecun Museum. (a) Houses F1–F4, photoed by Junjie Xu; (b) restoration model of wood skeleton and mud walls, photoed by Junjie Xu; (c) structure of wood skeleton and mud walls house, modified after He [36].
Figure 4. Houses F1–F4 and restoration model of the wood skeleton and mud walls at Dahecun Museum. (a) Houses F1–F4, photoed by Junjie Xu; (b) restoration model of wood skeleton and mud walls, photoed by Junjie Xu; (c) structure of wood skeleton and mud walls house, modified after He [36].
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Figure 5. Roof structure and length of F1.
Figure 5. Roof structure and length of F1.
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Figure 6. Age–depth model for the Z2 core.
Figure 6. Age–depth model for the Z2 core.
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Figure 7. Diagram showing changes in relative abundance (expressed in %) for the major palynomorphs recovered from the Dahecun Z2 core.
Figure 7. Diagram showing changes in relative abundance (expressed in %) for the major palynomorphs recovered from the Dahecun Z2 core.
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Figure 8. Comparison of Dahecun Z2 core pollen record with various other regional and global environmental signals. (a) Simulated mean temperatures based on mollusks from East Asia [48]. (b) δ18O record from Dongge Cave [49]. (c) Tree pollen percentages from Gonghai Lake [51]. (d) Synthesized Northern Hemisphere (30–90° N) temperature record during the Holocene [50]. (e) Pollen-based annual precipitation (PANN) reconstructed from Gonghai Lake [51]. (f) Trees and shrubs pollen percentages from Dahecun Z2 core (this study). The shaded lines indicate changes around the Late Yangshao period.
Figure 8. Comparison of Dahecun Z2 core pollen record with various other regional and global environmental signals. (a) Simulated mean temperatures based on mollusks from East Asia [48]. (b) δ18O record from Dongge Cave [49]. (c) Tree pollen percentages from Gonghai Lake [51]. (d) Synthesized Northern Hemisphere (30–90° N) temperature record during the Holocene [50]. (e) Pollen-based annual precipitation (PANN) reconstructed from Gonghai Lake [51]. (f) Trees and shrubs pollen percentages from Dahecun Z2 core (this study). The shaded lines indicate changes around the Late Yangshao period.
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Table 1. AMS14C dating results for the Dahecun Z2 core.
Table 1. AMS14C dating results for the Dahecun Z2 core.
Lab.
No.		Field
No.		Depth
(cm)		Dating
Material		δ13C (‰)pMC (%)Calibrated
Age (cal BP)
δ13CError (1σ)pMCError (1σ)
XA3327Z2 53106Soil OM−16.760.6153.740.205714 ± 39
XA3328Z2 86172Charcoal−15.840.2046.580.167062 ± 75
XA3338Z2135270Soil OM−18.040.1835.800.139224 ± 63
XA3331Z2153306Soil OM−22.671.1634.840.279484 ± 38
Table 2. The squares of the excavated houses in the Dahecun site of Yangshao culture [22,23,24,25].
Table 2. The squares of the excavated houses in the Dahecun site of Yangshao culture [22,23,24,25].
House NumberPeriodTypesSquare/m2Pillar Holes
F22Middle YangshaoRectangular ground building423
F1Late YangshaoRectangular ground building20.881
F2Late YangshaoRectangular ground building14.2356
F3Late YangshaoRectangular ground building7.833
F4Late YangshaoTrapezoidal ground building2.514
F5Late YangshaoRectangular ground building15.18N/A
F6Late YangshaoRectangular ground building10.251
F7Late YangshaoRectangular ground building1.041
F8Late YangshaoRectangular ground building10.454
F9Late YangshaoRectangular ground building5.27N/A
F10Late YangshaoRectangular ground building84
F11Late YangshaoRectangular ground building26.68N/A
F12Late YangshaoRectangular ground building19.03N/A
F13Late YangshaoRectangular ground building25.314
F14Late YangshaoRectangular ground building30.865
F15Late YangshaoRectangular ground building122.215
F16Late YangshaoRectangular ground building6.293
F17Late YangshaoTrapezoidal ground building5.5121
F18Late YangshaoRectangular ground building17.527
F19Late YangshaoRectangular ground building7.5929
F20Late YangshaoRectangular ground building15.28N/A
F21Late YangshaoRectangular ground building23.978
F23Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/A2
F25Late YangshaoN/AN/AN/A
F26Late YangshaoN/AN/AN/A
F27Late YangshaoRectangular ground building31
F28Late YangshaoRectangular ground building2.92N/A
F29Late YangshaoRectangular ground building3.66
F30Late YangshaoRectangular ground building21.4233
F31Late YangshaoTrapezoidal ground building32.2551
F32Late YangshaoRectangular ground building936
F33Late YangshaoRectangular ground building9.2N/A
F34Late YangshaoRectangular ground building30.8N/A
F35Late YangshaoRectangular ground building1.297
F36Late YangshaoRectangular ground building9.461
F37Late YangshaoRectangular ground building224
F38Late YangshaoRectangular ground building132
F39Late YangshaoRectangular ground building
F40Late YangshaoRectangular ground building13.31
F41Late YangshaoRectangular ground building4.95N/A
F42Late YangshaoRectangular semisubterranean dwelling1.92N/A
F43Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F44Late YangshaoN/AN/AN/A
F45Late YangshaoN/AN/AN/A
F46Late YangshaoOblique rectangular ground building24.3673
F47Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F48Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F49Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F50Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F51Late YangshaoRectangular ground building4.8N/A
F52Late YangshaoRectangular ground building5.53N/A
F53Late YangshaoRectangular ground building1.64N/A
F54Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F55Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F56Late YangshaoRectangular ground building6.65N/A
F57Late YangshaoRectangular ground buildingN/AN/A
F24Longshan cultureRectangular ground building15N/A
Table 3. The number of excavated houses in Late Yangshao culture sites in Zhengzhou region.
Table 3. The number of excavated houses in Late Yangshao culture sites in Zhengzhou region.
SitesHouse AmountTypesResources
Dahecun55Rectangular ground building[22,23,24,25]
Xishizhao1Rectangular ground building[29]
XishanMore than 200Rectangular ground building[28]
Linshanzhai1Rectangular semi-subterranean dwelling[30]
Zhanmatun12Rectangular ground building[31]
Houzhuangwang1Rectangular ground building[32]
Dianjuntai5Rectangular ground building[33]
Qingtai5Rectangular ground building[26]
Fangjinzhai3Rectangular ground building[34]
Chuwan2Rectangular ground building[35]
Shuanghuaishu77Rectangular ground building[21]
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Wang, X.; Xu, J.; Mo, D.; Wang, H.; Lu, P. Vegetation, Architecture, and Human Activities: Reconstructing Land Use History from the Late Yangshao Period in Zhengzhou Region, Central China. Land 2025, 14, 321. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020321

AMA Style

Wang X, Xu J, Mo D, Wang H, Lu P. Vegetation, Architecture, and Human Activities: Reconstructing Land Use History from the Late Yangshao Period in Zhengzhou Region, Central China. Land. 2025; 14(2):321. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020321

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Xia, Junjie Xu, Duowen Mo, Hui Wang, and Peng Lu. 2025. "Vegetation, Architecture, and Human Activities: Reconstructing Land Use History from the Late Yangshao Period in Zhengzhou Region, Central China" Land 14, no. 2: 321. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020321

APA Style

Wang, X., Xu, J., Mo, D., Wang, H., & Lu, P. (2025). Vegetation, Architecture, and Human Activities: Reconstructing Land Use History from the Late Yangshao Period in Zhengzhou Region, Central China. Land, 14(2), 321. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14020321

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