Tin Mining and Post-Tin Mining Reclamation Initiatives in Indonesia: With Special Reference to Bangka Belitung Areas

Abstract

Tin mining has played a central role in Indonesia’s economy, particularly in the Bangka Belitung Islands, but it has also caused severe environmental and socio-economic impacts. This study aims to critically review the consequences of tin mining and evaluate reclamation initiatives through a narrative literature review of scientific publications, technical reports, and policy documents. The findings show that open-pit mining has led to deforestation, biodiversity loss, environmental degradation, and decreased soil fertility, while weak governance has fueled illegal mining and social conflicts. Rehabilitation strategies such as reforestation, agroforestry, aquaculture, and soil improvement have the potential to restore or reclaim degraded land and are proposed as a viable pathway to balance ecological improvement with socio-economic development. This study focuses on its interdisciplinary approach, integrating ecological, socio-economic, and institutional perspectives to propose a comprehensive, ecosystem-based framework for post-mining reclamation. By highlighting both challenges and opportunities, the study provides actionable insights for policymakers, mining companies, and local communities.

1. Introduction

Tin mining has long been essential to the economic growth of many nations in Southeast Asia due to the region’s abundant alluvial and primary resources [1,2]. Among these countries, Indonesia stands out as a global leader in tin production, with the Bangka Belitung Islands as the center of the tin industry [3,4,5]. Indonesia’s role in the global tin supply chain is anchored in the Southeast Asian tin belt, which extends from Myanmar through Thailand and Malaysia to Indonesia [6,7]. As noted by Sun et al. [8], the Southeast Asian tin belt is among the most significant tin-producing regions in the world. The tin deposits, largely associated with tertiary granitic intrusions, are concentrated in the Bangka and Belitung Islands, which account for 23.5% of global tin production and 17.3% of global reserves [9,10,11]. In 2022, Indonesia produced approximately 57,735 tons of tin, with the majority sourced from Bangka Belitung [12]. Although being a major producer of tin, Indonesia is also susceptible to supply uncertainty in spite of high global demand.

At a global scale, tin is considered an important and strategic mineral resource, with around 360–370 thousand tons annually are produced primarily for solder in electronics and tinplate for packaging [11,13]. China, Myanmar, and Indonesia are the main source countries that produce this deposit. Consequently, local disruptions make the global supply vulnerable. Despite tin’s high economic value, tin mining often creates ongoing problems worldwide. Small-scale and artisanal mining, such as in Southeast Asia, Africa, and South America, leads to widespread deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution, while governance challenges include child labor, unsafe working conditions, and conflict-related trade in cassiterite [14,15]. These global patterns highlight that Indonesia’s environmental and social challenges are part of a broader set of impacts associated with tin mining and its utilization worldwide.

Despite its economic benefits, tin mining in Indonesia—both open-pit and offshore—has caused severe environmental degradation. Open-pit mining involves large-scale removal of soil and vegetation, leading to soil erosion, threatening water quality, habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity [16,17,18,19]. Offshore mining, particularly suction dredging, disrupts seabed ecosystems and degrades marine water quality [10,20,21]. Illegal and informal mining operations intensify these impacts through uncontrolled deforestation, land erosion, and habitat fragmentation [20,22], jeopardizing the long-term ecological viability of the region [23]. Such interconnected ecological and social issues highlight the necessity of establishing effective governance institutions and reclamation strategies, especially in Indonesia’s Bangka Belitung Islands, because tin mining continues to be both environmentally damaging and economically important.

The environmental consequences of tin mining extend beyond immediate habitat destruction. Mining activities significantly alter the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil, resulting in reduced fertility, increased erosion, and disrupted hydrological cycles [22,24]. Toxic contaminants such as mercury further compromise soil health, rendering areas unsuitable for agriculture or ecological recovery [25]. The degradation of soil microbiomes—critical for nutrient cycling and ecosystem function—presents additional challenges for land restoration [26]. Moreover, abandoned mining sites are often littered with nutrient-poor overburden mounds and quartz tailings, complicating reclamation efforts [27]. Implementing effective reclamation technologies and environmentally friendly mining practices is essential to restoring such significant environmental damage.

According to the background above, this paper seeks to examine the social, eco-nomic, and environmental consequences of tin mining, assess the extent of land degradation it has caused in Indonesia, evaluate the effectiveness of current reclamation practices, and identify strategies required to mitigate its negative impacts. Therefore, this paper presents a comprehensive review of tin mining in Indonesia, with a particular focus on its environmental and socioeconomic impacts in the Bangka Belitung Islands. It also examines ongoing reclamation efforts and highlights key shortcomings in existing practices. By synthesizing information from technical reports, regulatory documents, and academic literature, this study advocates for more integrated and environmentally sustainable mining approaches that balance ecological restoration with economic feasibility. The insights provided aim to serve as a valuable resource for industry stakeholders, policymakers, and environmental advocates working together to ensure the long-term sustainability of Indonesia’s tin mining regions.

2. Materials and Methods

This study employs a narrative literature review methodology to comprehensively examine and synthesize information on tin mining reclamation. The narrative approach provides the flexibility to integrate diverse sources, such as textbooks, peer-reviewed journal articles, policy documents, and technical reports, into a comprehensive discussion that bridges environmental, social, and institutional perspectives [28,29]. This approach was considered appropriate for complex and interdisciplinary topics such as sustainable post-mining land management [30]. The scope of the review was defined to cover several interrelated aspects, including a comprehensive analysis of tin mining operations (with coverage limited to on-land tin mining), the history of its development, and its environmental and social impacts. The scope also included an in-depth study of post-mining land use arrangements, efforts to rehabilitate degraded land, and legal and institutional aspects of tin mining. A more complete methodology description is presented in Figure 1.

The literature collection process was extensive, utilizing reputable scientific databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed. The main keywords used included “tin mining reclamation,” “degraded land rehabilitation,” “sustainable mining practices,” and “post-mining land use planning,” with Boolean operators and truncation employed to refine results. After the initial database screening, the search yielded approximately 200 references. These references were reviewed for quality, taking into account the credibility of their sources, methodological rigor, and the empirical strength of the presented findings [31]. Indexed and peer-reviewed journal articles, as well as reports from recognized international or government institutions, were prioritized as primary references. The screening includes reviewing titles, abstracts, and full texts to minimize bias in source selection. To enhance transparency, explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied [32]. The inclusion criteria included scientific publications from 2000 onwards, relevant case studies, and empirical findings that support best practices in tin mining reclamation. Literature that presents case studies in Indonesia or comparable Southeast Asian contexts was prioritized. By contrast, materials were excluded if they focused solely on offshore tin mining, on other mineral commodities, or consisted only of non-empirical opinion pieces. Publications prior to 2000 may still be considered if they contain very important information, while non-English and non-Indonesian texts are excluded unless a reliable translation is available. Decisions regarding inclusion and exclusion were verified by more than one author, and disagreements were resolved through discussion until consensus was reached [33]. By combining various types of literature and documenting all stages of selection, this study attempted to maintain a balance of perspectives and reduce the dominance of individual interpretative bias. Following title and abstract review, full-text evaluation yielded a final set of 168 core publications for further analysis.

Following the literature collection, a thematic analysis was conducted to identify patterns, challenges, and solutions in post-tin reclamation. The focus of the study included: (1) environmental and social impacts of tin mining activities, (2) characteristics of post-mining degraded land, (3) effective land rehabilitation/reclamation efforts, including the use of innovative technologies and ecosystem-based approaches, and (4) legal and institutional frameworks that support sustainable mining practices. The information synthesis process was conducted by comparing findings from different studies, identifying knowledge gaps, and formulating future research directions.

3. The Historical and Development of the Tin Concession in Indonesia

Historically, tin has been utilized in Indonesia since ancient times, primarily for crafting ornamental jewelry, intricate carvings, and coinage [34]. According to Swastiwi et al. [35], there are three primary stories around the discovery of tin resources in the Bangka Belitung Islands. The first version mentioned that tin was accidentally discovered by local farmers in 1707 while they were burning the ground for farming. They were taken in with the tin’s molten appearance during the fire, which eventually led to its utilization. According to the second version, Johorean Muslims of Chinese ancestry started systematically extraction of minerals on Bangka Island in 1709, during the Palembang Sultanate established authority over them. However, the most well-recognized version connects a Chinese immigrant named Oen Asing (Boen Asiong) with the establishment of tin mining in Belo Mentok Village between 1710 and 1711. This version is supported by both historical records and oral traditions.

By the 17th and 18th centuries, Bangka had emerged as a significant tin-producing region, attracting the attention of colonial powers. Its strategic location and abundant tin reserves made the islands a valuable asset for foreign control. Between 1812 and 1816, the British briefly occupied Bangka and Belitung, introducing structured mining systems and standardizing tin ingot shapes and weights [36]. These initiatives laid the foundation for large-scale tin extraction in the region. Following the British occupation, the Dutch East Indies government assumed control of tin mining operations in 1819. Under Dutch administration, several major tin companies were established, including the Singkep Tin Exploitatie Maatschappij, Banka Tinwinning Bedrijf, and the Gemeenschappelijke Mijnbouw Maatschappij Billiton [10].

Post-independence, the Indonesian government sought to assert greater control over its mineral wealth. Between 1953 and 1958, tin enterprises previously operated by the Dutch were nationalized and consolidated into three state-owned companies. In 1961, the government formed the General Leadership Body (BPU) to coordinate and oversee tin mining activities nationwide marking a significant step toward centralized governance of the industry. In 1968, the three state-owned companies and the BPU merged to form the State Mining Company (PN) Tambang Timah. This consolidation aimed to improve operational efficiency, optimize resource utilization, and streamline production processes. PN Tambang Timah was rebranded as PT Timah Tbk. with operational areas on Bangka and Belitung Islands in 1976, becoming Indonesia’s largest and most influential tin mining company.

4. Tin Mining Areas and Practices in Indonesia

Indonesia is the world’s second-largest tin producer, accounting for around 22–24% of global output between 2015 and 2022. Production is overwhelmingly concentrated in the Bangka Belitung Province, which consists of Bangka and Belitung Islands, together covering 16,424 km² and inhabited by 1.43 million people as of 2017. The expansion of tin mining concessions has been driven by the rising global demand for tin, especially for electronics and renewable energy technologies. Over the past decade, the total concession area has grown by about 15% [37]. Recent data show that the country has approximately 479,295 hectares of tin mining concessions, with the majority about 427,903 hectares located in Bangka Belitung Province [38]. Based on the geoportal of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, the distribution of the tin mining area can be seen in Figure 2 [39]. Bangka Belitung alone contributes 90–95% of Indonesia’s tin production, equivalent to 65,000–70,000 tons annually [40].

The geological characteristics of the Bangka Belitung region, primarily alluvial and offshore tin deposits, heavily influence the distribution of mining concessions. The mining is carried out both on land and at sea, using a range of methods and equipment adapted to the specific characteristics of each environment. More than 60% of these concessions are in ecologically sensitive areas, such as tropical rainforests and coastal zones [41]. They were land-based and offshore tin mining practices are as follows in

Table 1. Practices of land-based and offshore tin mining.

No.	Practices	Description
1.	Land-based tin mining	Vegetation is removed to access mining deposits, followed by stripping, which involves the excavation of overburden—layers of topsoil and sediment that do not contain tin—using heavy machinery such as bulldozers and excavators. The tin ore grade in Bangka Belitung averages 0.5–1.5 kg Sn per m3 of sediment [42]. After hydraulic mining (high-pressure water jets), the resulting slurry yields: tin ore concentrate amounted 30–40% Sn; and tailings: amounted 90% of processed volume, mainly quartz sand and clay. For every 10 tonnes of slurry, only 30–40 kg of tin metal equivalent is recovered. The process generates millions of tonnes of tailings annually, much of which is poorly managed and contributes to land degradation [42,43].
2.	Offshore tin mining	The use of a stripping suction vessel to lift the top layer of seabed sediment consisting of mud, sand, and gravel to a depth of about 20 m. The material is immediately extracted, and the non-tin-containing material is dumped to the other side. Next, a dredger is used to extract the sediment containing tin, producing a tin ore concentrate with a content of about 20–30% Sn. The use of more efficient tools, such as bucket wheel dredges, can directly suck up tin-rich sediment without using conveyors [44,45].

.

This entire process is commonly used in Bangka Belitung, and although effective in extracting tin, this method has significant environmental impacts, so technical innovation is still needed in designing sustainable mining practices. In addition, to achieve environmentally friendly mining implementation, mining area management needs to follow several Indonesian laws, government, and ministerial regulations concerning regional governance, environmental protection, and pollution control.

5. Impact of Tin Mining

Tin mining in Bangka Belitung, primarily through open-pit methods, causes severe ecological and social impacts. These actions impair critical ecosystem services such as carbon storage and water regulation, leading to habitat loss, biodiversity decline, and ecosystem fragmentation.

5.1. Impacts on Vegetation Structure and Biomass

Open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung has caused severe degradation of forest ecosystems and significant alterations in vegetation structure. The complete removal of surface vegetation—including trees, shrubs, and ground cover—not only leads to substantial biodiversity loss but also disrupts vital ecological processes that sustain forest health [46]. These activities damage both the physical structure and species composition of forests, while impairing critical functions such as carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and water regulation.

Mining also reduces below-ground biomass, damaging soil microbes and roots critical for carbon storage and nutrient cycling. As vegetation declines, carbon stocks drop, and greenhouse gas emissions rise, especially in tropical zones [47]. Post-mining areas are often dominated by fast-growing grasses and shrubs, which offer limited carbon absorption and slow recovery [22].

5.2. Decrease in Biodiversity

Since mining damages vegetation and alters the forest’s structure, open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung has a negative impact on biodiversity. Local extinctions and population decreases are caused by habitat loss, especially for extremely specific species that are indigenous to the area [48]. Destroying their habitats causes species that depend on trees, such as some birds, to become extinct [49]. The population is further isolated by fragmentation, which decreases long-term survival and genetic diversity [50]. In addition, invasive species become possible through mining disturbances, exceeding native plants, and disrupting food webs [51]. Pioneer and invasive grasses frequently take over areas that are impacted, reducing the number of native animal species while additionally influencing the characteristics of soil over time and increasing ecological degradation [52,53], and alter soil properties, worsening ecological degradation [54].

Particularly for indigenous species, the threat is significant. Plants and animals have decreased or become extinct because of habitat degradation, including the rare Bangka slow loris (Nycticebus bancanicus), which is currently in danger due to continuous legal and illicit mining [55,56]. Important ecosystem functions like pollination, water purification, and pest control are threatened by such biodiversity loss, which is detrimental to both ecological stability and human well-being [57].

5.3. Effects on Soil Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties

The Bangka Belitung Province’s open-pit tin mining has resulted in deforestation, which has had a significant effect on the soil’s biological, chemical, and physical characteristics. In addition to lowering soil fertility, this degradation interferes with the ecosystem’s ability to function as a whole.

5.3.1. Soil Physical Properties

Open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung significantly damages soil physical properties. Compaction, erosion, and decreased fertility result from the disturbances of soil structure caused by the removal of vegetation and organic-rich topsoil [58,59,60]. Exposed soils are more prone to erosion and lose moisture rapidly, hindering natural regeneration and agricultural use [61].

Compaction by heavy machinery decreases soil porosity and permeability, which reduces water penetration and root growth [62,63]. Compaction increases flooding and runoff in high-rainfall areas like Bangka Belitung, accelerating the erosion of topsoil [64]. According to [65], eroded materials also cause an increase in sediment in the river, which damages both water quality and aquatic ecosystems.

5.3.2. Soil Chemical Properties

The chemical characteristics of the soil are drastically changed by open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung, which results in persistent decreases in ecosystem health and fertility [22]. A major consequence is the loss of soil organic matter, which is required for sustaining structure and retaining nutrients, because of the removal of vegetation and the lack of organic inputs such as roots and leaf litter [66,67]. This affects the recovery of vegetation by causing nutrient depletion, particularly for nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium [18].

Excessive precipitation accelerates the leaching of nutrients, removing calcium, magnesium, and potassium from exposed soils [68,69]. This process accelerates in tropical areas like Bangka Belitung, decreasing soil fertility and causing nutrient runoff into surrounding water bodies, causing a threat to eutrophication [70]. Additionally, mining can introduce dangerous elements like mercury, which is frequently used in tin extraction, and change the pH of the soil. These substances can accumulate in soils and affect plant growth and microbial life [24,71]. pH variations have an impact on nutrient availability, which makes the environment inappropriate for regeneration [72,73]. Both ecological recovery and agricultural potential are constrained by these coupled processes, which lead to long-term soil degradation.

5.3.3. Soil Biological Properties

The biological characteristics of the soil are seriously disturbed by open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung, especially the microbial and faunal communities that are vital to the health of the ecosystem. Although bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes are soil microorganisms that help in productivity and nutrient cycling [74,75], mining operations damage their habitats by removing organic matter, compacting the soil, and exposing the material to dangerous conditions [76].

As stated by Valliere et al. [77], this loss influences vegetation recovery and soil regeneration. Additionally, mining decreases populations of soil fauna, such as ants and earthworms, which promote organic matter breakdown and aeration [78,79]. The biological processes that are essential for soil health are further reduced by compacted, nutrient-poor soils that restrict their activity [80,81].

5.4. Impact on the Socio-Economic Well-Being of the Local Community

While tin mining creates jobs and supports economic growth, it also brings negative social impacts. It can deepen poverty, cause conflicts among stakeholders, and increase illegal mining. Economically, relying too much on one commodity, the rise in illegal mining, and the loss of farmland pose serious long-term risks to the region’s sustainable development.

5.4.1. Social Impacts of Tin Mining Operations

The social impact of tin mining activities in Bangka Belitung is becoming an increasingly complex and urgent issue to be studied. Although mining promises economic benefits, in reality, many local community groups actually bear a large social burden due to these activities.

a.

Poverty Trap due to neglection of local community importance and interest

Conflicts of interest among parties are a big issue on the Bangka Island coast. This is owing to the absence of a political settlement, which has resulted in conflicts between state-owned and private mining companies, fishers, and local governments [17]. This is due to the failure of the central government to delegate authority over tin resources. As a result, the parties have taken opposing, stances to maintain their rights. A study by Huang & Ge [82] on mining and indigenous communities in Southeast Asia shows that, although mining can create jobs, it often brings problems like forced relocation, cultural loss, and environmental damage. These issues can cause social conflict among those who suffer from the negative effects of mining. In Bangka Belitung, one example occurred in 2019, when conflicts over mining control led to riots. Hundreds of fishermen protested the expansion of PT. Tin Mining at Air Hantu Beach, Bedukang, Bangka Regency [17].

b.

Conflicting interest among stakeholders

Natural resources often attract greed and conflict. In many cases, land ownership becomes the main cause of disputes. Those who have privilege in funding usually have more power to influence regulations, especially about natural resource use [83,84]. Meanwhile, local communities are often left out; they do not get equal access to the benefits and suffer more from the negative impacts [85]. This impact eventually causes people to become increasingly trapped in the poverty trap [83,84]. A study by Adrian et al. [86] showed that offshore tin mining in Bangka Island affects the livelihoods of traditional fishers. Access to work and security in the work of traditional fishermen of Bangka Belitung becomes limited. Their fishing areas near the coast (less than 2 miles) are polluted, so they must go as far as 30 miles to catch fish [87]. Since offshore mining expanded in 2005, fishers have resisted the operations, but they have little bargaining power [88]. Mining also causes significant environmental damage, and its impacts persist even after mines are closed [89]. Fishermen had little power to resist tin mining, which polluted their fishing areas. Ultimately, mining companies prioritize profits over the needs of the local people [60,88].

Subsequently, Haryadi et al. [17] also revealed that monitoring of illegal tin mining in Pangkalpinang is often flawed, with officials targeting only miners, not the middleman trader. Several news related to mining in Bangka Belitung (

Table 2. News regarding social conflicts as the impact of tin mining in Bangka Belitung.

No.	Media Names	News Title
1	www.kompas.id	Bangka Belitung Three Century Stuck in Tin Conflict
		Refusing Tin Mining Hundreds of Bangka Fishermen to Sit on Suction Boats
2	detik.com	Illegal Mining Control Leads to Riot, Police: Arrogant
3	inews.id	Raids Illegal Tin Mine in Belo Laut Mangrove Forest Police Seize 13 Machines
		There are 2 Tin Mining Accidents in Bangka, 3 People were Killed by Buried in the Ground
		Fishermen and Miners Clash in Bangka, the Police Have Not Conducted Investigations
		Control of Illegal Tin Mining in Pangkalpinang Is Not Right on Target
4	www.liputan6.com	Tin Miners Demonstration in Bangka Chaotic
		Police Detain Two New Suspects in Tin Conflict
5	www.antaranews.com	Police Arrest Two Coordinators of Brutal Demonstration in Bangka Belitung
6	www.suara.com	WALHI Babel Records 1,053,253 Hectares of Forest in Babel Damaged due to tin mining
7	bangka.tribunnews.com	Illegal Tin Mine Damages PDAM Raw Water Source in Bangka Belitung.
8	wowbabel.com	100 thousand Hectares of Forest Damaged by Mining

) only provide information regarding conflicts as the impact of tin mining without explaining the law enforcement process carried out by authorized agencies [17].

c.

Weak tin mining governance increasingly risks the expansion of illegal mining

Poor governance in tin mining has led to a rise in illegal (or unconventional) mining in Bangka Belitung. It is not only done by local people who cannot afford legal permits but also by companies taking advantage of weak oversight [90]. Illegal mining has even entered protected areas and public lands. Many of these activities use unsafe and substandard equipment, putting both people and the environment at risk. After mining, the land is usually left damaged, with no efforts at rehabilitation [17,88]. Haryadi et al. [17] also noted that foreign powers still influence tin mining governance, and some outdated regulations remain in place. In addition, zoning overlaps with different interests, which often leads to conflict. The shift toward regional autonomy and decentralization has further complicated the division of authority in managing tin resources.

5.4.2. Economic Impact of Tin Mining

In Bangka Belitung, tin mining plays a significant role in the local economy. It assists the local government in generating revenue and creates jobs for many people. But there are additionally disadvantages to tin mining too.

a.

Revenue generation for the local government and Contribution to regional GDP

Tin mining is a key industry in Indonesia and plays a role in national economic growth. Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics of Bangka Belitung Islands Province [91], the province exported 69,189 tons of tin with the total value of USD 1390. This figure is the second largest worldwide after China, with 81,500 tons of tin exported [92]. Other data present a slightly different figure that the total production of tin from Indonesia had reached 76,400 tons in 2017 and an average of 60,000 tons in the last ten years, 99% of Indonesia’s tin is produced in Bangka Belitung [90]. Until 2019, the position of Indonesia was still the second largest tin producer country after China accounting for 26% of global production [93].

Tin mining began on land but expanded to coastal areas in the past 20 years. Study from Sulista & Rosyid [94] revealed that the tin industry has significantly contributed to the region’s Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) and supported the growth of construction and manufacturing. It has also raised household incomes across the province. From 2001 to 2015, the total GRDP of all economic units in Kepulauan Bangka Belitung Province was IDR 32.6 trillion (US$ 3217.5 million) per year (Figure 3). Meanwhile, the overall GRDP from mining and quarrying increased by an average of IDR 5.9 trillion (US$ 578.5 million) per year, with tin mining accounting for around IDR 4.2 trillion (US$ 418 million), or 73%. The tin mining sector’s GRDP increased from IDR 2.9 trillion (US$ 285.6 million) in 2001 to IDR 4.5 trillion (US$ 328.5 million) in 2015, or 3.2% per year.

However, the fiscal benefits to Bangka Belitung are limited due to the fact that the revenue mostly goes to the national government [88,95,96]. Furthermore, the value added of tin mining was also not significant compared to the GDRP of the Bangka Belitung Province [95].

b.

Job creation and income generation for the local community

Between 2004 and 2013, about 76% of workers in the tin mining industry in Bangka Belitung were local residents (

Table 3. Local workers and expatriate at PT. Timah tbk in Bangka Belitung Islands Province 2009–2013.

Year	Local Workers		Expatriates		Total of Workers
	Number	%	Number	%
2009	3478	76	1092	24	4570
2010	3162	77	961	23	4123
2011	2988	76	960	24	3948
2012	3439	76	1059	24	4498
2013	3555	76	1097	24	4652
Average	3324	76	1034	23	4358

Source: [95].

) [95]. PT. Tin employed around 4000 individuals between 2009 and 2013. The company hardly fired any employees each year. Local employees account for 76% of the company’s overall workforce, much more compared to 23% for expats. The company hires local staff on a long-term contract basis. The hiring of local employees is reported based on long-term contracts by the company. Of the province’s total workforce, tin mining directly employed around 0.83% (around 4319 people), with jobs spread across all districts and cities. Meanwhile, medium- and small-scale mining provided jobs for about 25,414 people (5.68%). In addition, there is a large informal sector—known as unconventional mining—with around 207,000 people involved [90,95]. This shows that tin mining provided a positive impact on local employment.

Mining investments often help reduce poverty by creating new jobs. However, some studies revealed that the effect is usually short-term, mainly when environmental damage occurs [88,97].

c.

Economic dependence on a single industry

Tin mining in Bangka Belitung has expanded from land to coastal areas, leading to new problems. Fishermen have protested against offshore mining activities [88,98] reported that since the government changed its policy and opened mining licenses to more parties, both companies and individuals have increased their involvement in tin mining. Potential high benefits offered by the activities have further induced local people to engage in tin mining. The promise of high profits has attracted many locals. However, due to limited capital and the inability to meet license requirements, many people cannot obtain legal permits. As a result, illegal mining has spread widely. It is estimated that up to 70% of the local population is involved in illegal tin mining [98,99]. Since then, tin mining activities were done both by legal licensed mining (authorized by the government) and by illegal mining practices (mostly referred to unconventional mining) [98]. The lure of large profits that will be obtained quickly causes dependence on a single industry and negates the potential for other sources of income that exist in this area.

d.

Negative externality at Global Market and domestic level

The expansion of tin mining both from legal license and illegal mining, will in turn lead to other negative externalities due to the large supply of tin in the international market. According to Murty & Yuningsih [100] since tin was categorized as a free goods (not monitored) and revocation of tin status as a strategic commodity, unconventional tin mining became more widespread. Tin is then no longer monopolized by a State-Owned Enterprise and can be exported freely by anyone.

Darwance et al. [98] reported that the surge in tin supply—mostly from Indonesia—has caused global tin prices to fall, especially on the London Metal Exchange. If this oversupply continues, it could lower Indonesia’s tin export value and reduce foreign exchange earnings. Between 2004 and 2013, Indonesia lost Rp 4.17 trillion in state-owned tin revenue due to illegal mining and smuggling. In fact, smuggled tin accounted for nearly 46% of total national tin income during that period. Without proper management, even a large and profitable mining sector can harm national governance and economic stability.

e.

Land use conversion leading to reduced agricultural productivity

One major impact of widespread tin mining in Bangka Belitung is land use change [98]. Bangka Belitung was previously known as one of the best white pepper-producing areas in the world [98,101]. However, over the past few decades, pepper production has dropped sharply. Only a few villagers still grow it, often as a side job [99]. Although root rot disease attack and yellow disease caused by parasitic nematodes have been claimed as the cause of low pepper production in Bangka Belitung, the rise in illegal tin mining is believed has caused pepper production decline. Many former pepper farms have been turned into mining sites. This shift has not only reduced pepper yields but also harmed other crops due to land and water pollution. As a result, productive farmland in Bangka Belitung continues to shrink [90].

6. Some Efforts to Rehabilitate Degraded Land Due to Tin Mining

Despite their economic importance, mining activities frequently cause serious damage to the environment, particularly to the soil. The removal of vegetation, topsoil loss, soil compaction, and chemical contamination are common characteristics of post-mining landscapes, which result in barren and unproductive land [98]. Degraded land will ultimately be the consequence of all this condition. Figure 4 shows the situation of part of the tin mine seen from the air and from around the mine location.

6.1. Degraded Land After Tin Mining

Land degradation is characterized by a decline in land quality that affects land productivity which will ultimately result in critical land [102]. Data from the Directorate General of Watershed Management and Forest Rehabilitation, in 2022 the area of degraded land in Indonesia is 12.74 million hectares [103]. This area is spread across production forest areas, protected forests, conservation forests, and outside forest areas. The area of critical land is even projected to reach 24 million ha in 2045 if no further action is taken.

The occurrence of degraded land in tin mining is caused by the mining process which includes land clearing, stripping of the topsoil, excavation, dam construction, washing, and disposal of solid materials from tin washing residue (tailings). Mining activities, especially open-pit mining, cause: (1) former mining holes that usually contain water (voids), (2) piles of excavated results (topsoil that forms wavy areas, (3) piles of excavated results at the bottom of the topsoil (overburden), (4) piles of results from the washing process of materials containing tin (tailings) [24]. Based on the 2022 degraded land map and land cover map from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (https://geoportal.menlhk.go.id, accessed on 24 October 2024), spread of degraded land due to tin mining in Bangka Belitung Island was shown in Figure 5.

In Indonesia, PT Timah Tbk currently has a tin mining area of 487.52 thousand ha as of July 2022. The total degraded land after tin mining that has been rehabilitated until 2023 reached 3453.88 hectares, consisting of 287.51 hectares outside the operational site (outside the Mining Concession Permit-IUP), about 8.32%, and 3166.37 hectares inside the operational site (within the Mining Concession Permit-IUP), about 91.68% (PT Timah, 2023). Some of the rehabilitation areas for post tin mining in each district are shown in Figure 6.

Due to widespread open-pit mining methods, the general utility of the land has changed significantly because of these activities in terms of soil texture, soil fertility, and heavy metal accumulation. In post tin mining areas, heavy metal accumulation occurs because of a number of processes, such metal-bearing rock exposure, which exposes ores rich in sulfur to oxygen and water as they are being excavated. This may result in acid mine drainage, which releases heavy metals into soil and water systems [104]. Tailings and waste deposits often include high concentrations of residual heavy metals. When improperly handled, these materials release pollutants into surrounding soils [105]. Additionally, when rainfall occurs, it enters streams and agricultural fields through surface runoff and leaching, which leads to erosion and the spread of metal contaminants over a wide area [18].

Several rehabilitation efforts have been prompted by the degraded land that was caused by Bangka Belitung’s tin mining to reestablish environmental balance and land productivity. Burgess et al. [106] and Rolo et al. [107], mentioned that reforestation, soil enhancement, water management, and the implementation of sustainable land use systems like silvopasture and agroforestry are all part of these programs. Therefore, when restoring land that has been degraded by tin mining, there are several processes that need to be considered, such as land use arrangement, soil enhancement, and species choice.

6.2. Land Use Arrangement in Post-Tin Mining Reclamation: A Landscape

A comprehensive land use plan that incorporates ecological restoration and socioeconomic development is required to restore the severe degradation of the environment. Based on biophysical appropriateness and community needs, a landscape plan for the post-tin mining reclamation requires an integrated and strategic approach, with a focus on strategic zoning for forest conservation, plantation agriculture, food crop cultivation, or aquaculture development.

6.2.1. Forest Conservation

Preserving and restoring forested areas are important for maintaining ecological balance and preventing further land degradation. In Bangka Belitung, forest conservation is concentrated in regions with steep terrains, such as mountainous and hilly areas, which are prone to erosion and landslides when devoid of adequate vegetation cover [3].

The reclamation process begins with the planting of fast-growing pioneer species that can quickly establish a protective vegetative layer. Species such as Acacia mangium and Albizia falcataria are commonly used due to their rapid growth rates and adaptability to degraded soils [20]. These species not only stabilize the soil but also enhance its fertility through nitrogen fixation and organic matter accumulation.

After the establishment of pioneer species, the introduction of endemic flora is essential to restore the native biodiversity and ecological functions. Species indigenous to Bangka Belitung, such as Tristaniopsis merguensis (pelawan) and various Shorea species (meranti), are reintroduced to create a resilient and self-sustaining forest ecosystem [108]. This phased approach ensures a gradual transition from monoculture stands to diverse native forests, thereby enhancing habitat quality for local wildlife and contributing to overall ecosystem health [109].

6.2.2. Plantation Agriculture

Identifying and allocating suitable areas for specific crops are critical to ensure both environmental sustainability and economic viability [110]. In Bangka Belitung, certain crops are compatible with the region’s climatic and soil conditions. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) are prominent plantation crops that have been successfully cultivated in reclaimed mining areas [3]. These crops provide substantial economic returns and employment opportunities for local communities. However, best management practices are necessary to mitigate potential environmental impacts, such as soil erosion and biodiversity loss, associated with large-scale monoculture plantations [111]. Pepper (Piper nigrum), a traditional commodity of Bangka Belitung, offers an alternative plantation option that aligns with both cultural heritage and market demand. Cultivating pepper in agroforestry systems enhances biodiversity and provides diversified income streams for farmers [112]. Integrating pepper cultivation with other crops or retaining native tree species within plantations can improve soil health, reduce pest incidences, and promote a more resilient agricultural system.

6.2.3. Food Crop Cultivation

Ensuring food security and supporting local livelihoods necessitate allocating land for food crop cultivation near residential areas [111]. This strategic placement reduces transportation costs, facilitates market access, and encourages community engagement in agricultural activities. Staple crops such as maize (Zea mays) and cassava (Manihot esculenta) are suitable for cultivation in post-mining soils, especially when appropriate soil amendments are applied [112]. Applying locally sourced organic matter, such as compost and green manure, significantly enhances soil fertility and structure, leading to improved crop yields. These practices not only boost productivity but also contribute to the sustainability of the agro-ecosystem by enhancing soil organic carbon and microbial activity [110].

Transforming leveled kolong areas into paddy fields presents a viable option for rice cultivation. Utilizing these areas for wetland rice production capitalizes on existing water resources and contributes to local food self-sufficiency [20]. Proper water management practices, such as constructing irrigation channels and employing controlled flooding techniques, are essential to optimize rice yields and maintain soil health.

6.2.4. Aquaculture Development

The numerous kolong resulting from tin mining activities offer potential for aquaculture development [113]. Repurposing these water bodies for freshwater fish farming can diversify local livelihoods and contribute to food security. Species such as tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and catfish (Clarias spp.) have been successfully cultivated due to their fast growth rates, market demand, and adaptability to varying water conditions [3]. However, prior to initiating aquaculture activities, it is crucial to assess and, if necessary, remediate water quality to ensure it meets the standards required for fish health and human consumption.

Integrating aquaculture with agriculture, known as aquaponics, presents an innovative approach to maximize resource use efficiency. In such systems, nutrient-rich water from fishponds is utilized to irrigate and fertilize crops, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers and promoting a closed-loop system that mimics natural ecological processes [20].

6.3. Treatment to Enhance Soil Characteristics

The soil physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, which are frequently seriously deteriorated as a result of mining operations, have a significant impact on the fertility state of post-tin mining land. The texture classes recorded for Bangka Island in

Table 4. Chemical properties of soil in post-tin mining areas in Bangka and Central Bangka.

Parameters	Locations
	Bangka	Central Bangka	Central Bangka
pH H2O	4.75	4.64	6.5
Organic-C (%)	0.27	0.29	0.64
Total-N (%)	0.03	0.03	0.67
P-Bray 1 (µg g−1)	8.25	0.75	0.40
Exchangeable-K (cmolc kg−1)	0.32	0.06	0.29
Exchangeable-Na (cmolc kg−1)	0.44	0.65	1.37
Exchangeable-Ca (cmolc kg−1)	0.25	0.20	0.58
Exchangeable-Mg (cmolc kg−1)	0.06	0.15	1.26
CEC (cmolc kg−1)	4.35	6.61	6.91
Texture	Sand	Sand	Sand

Source: [27,114,115].

show that the soil in post tin mining regions is sandy texture. Since these soil types usually have low nutrient availability, poor water retention, and low microbial activity, targeted interventions are essential to address these challenges, as they play a crucial role in restoring soil functionality and supporting the recovery of sustainable ecosystems.

Approaches such as the application of biochar, microbial inoculants, and organic amendments have shown promise in enhancing nutrient cycling, stimulating microbial activity, and improving soil structure [116,117,118]. Furthermore, the application of soil conditioners, such as compost or biochar, along with the strategic use of cover crops, has been shown to effectively reduce erosion and support the gradual development of a fertile topsoil layer. These practices enhance soil aggregation, improve water retention, and protect the soil surface from erosive forces, while simultaneously contributing organic matter and promoting microbial activity [119,120,121]. Aligned with the principles of sustainable land management, these interventions enhance both the physical and chemical properties of the soil, while also contributing to the long-term ecological restoration of degraded mining landscapes.

The application of soil ameliorants—such as mineral soil, organic fertilizers, and lime—combined with NPK fertilization has been demonstrated to significantly enhance the physical and chemical properties of soils in post-tin mining lands repurposed for rice cultivation [122,123]. These interventions improve soil structure, increase nutrient availability, and adjust pH levels, thereby promoting better crop growth and yield. For instance, Liu et al. [124] found that combining NPK fertilizers with organic amendments like green manure or pig manure improved soil nutrient status and microbial activity, leading to enhanced rice yields. Similarly, Dariah et al. [125] reported that the application of lime and organic materials in acid sulfate soils increased soil pH and positively influenced microbial community composition, which is crucial for nutrient cycling and plant health.

The Watershed and Protected Forest Management Center of Bangka Belitung Province (BPDASHL) has practiced the production and use of compost blocks. Compost blocks are compressed compost including fertilizer in the cubes form with holes on the top side to grow one plant seedling. Seedlings in the compost block are directly inserted into the planting hole [126]. Improving the quality of tailings on post-tin mining land was achieved through the application of organic amendments. Dodi et al. [127] evaluated the effects of biomass from Melastoma spp., Acacia spp., Paraserianthes falcataria, and grasses, combined with a liquid fertilizer applied at a dose of 2 mL L⁻¹. The addition of these organic materials significantly improved tailing characteristics, including increases in pH, organic carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), and exchangeable potassium (K) levels. Among the tested biomasses, Paraserianthes falcataria exhibited the fastest decomposition rate, followed sequentially by Melastoma spp., Acacia spp., and grasses. These findings highlight the potential of targeted organic amendments to accelerate soil quality restoration in degraded post-mining landscapes.

Cultivation of animal feed crops on former tin mining land can be done by adding manure into planting holes measuring 20 × 20 cm with a depth of 20–25 cm 2 kg/hole or 24 tons/ha, KCl and TSP fertilizers each 100 kg/ha (5 g/hole), and urea 200 kg/ha (10 g/hole). A series of studies on the use of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash (FABA) as soil ameliorant conducted at Bogor Agricultural University (IPB University) showed that FABA enriched compost had an effect on increasing pH, CEC, organic-C, and macro-nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg. The best treatment was achieved at 75% compost, 25% FABA, and 5 g/4 kg mycorrhizae [128,129,130].

The results of the study by the IPB Center for Mine Reclamation Study (IPB CMRS) in collaboration with the German Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR) in the Air Kundur 3 pilot project area, Pangkal Pinang, Riau, showed that the study area of approximately 18.6 Ha was characterized by quartz-rich tailings with heterogeneous coarse grain sizes, very low C-organic content (0.05–0.5%), and pH 5.2–5.8 (acid to slightly acid). The dominance of quartz sand has an impact on the CEC value, nutrient content, and very low water holding capacity, and very fast permeability, making the fertility level of this soil very low [122]. With such characteristics, Suryaningtyas et al. [131] designed a reclamation method by utilizing soil ameliorant available around the location, such as red soil, compost, rice husk ash and NPK industrial fertilizers. The use of red soil is intended to increase the clay content in the tailings and also reduce the amount of compost needed because compost is generally difficult to obtain in sufficient quantities. Clay and compost are expected to increase the CEC and water holding capacity, so that nutrient and water needs can be sufficient for plant growth. Vegetation planted in the production area is annual plants such as chili, tomato, corn, and eggplant (Solanum melongena), as well as perennial plants such as rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis), mango trees (Mangifera indica), cempedak (Artocarpus integer), langsat (Lansium domesticum), lime (Citrus spp.), cayenne pepper (Capsicum spp.), and guava (Psidium guajava). In the conservation area, eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), sengon buto (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), and bamboo trees are planted, as well as rubber trees as boundary plants in the surrounding area. Cover crops are planted to minimize soil erosion. The method used by the IPB CMRS is different from the usual reclamation method, namely using compost blocks, because it is considered practical and cheap. The results of reclamation activities in Air Kundur 3 as a result of the collaboration between IPB CMRS and BGR, can be seen in Figure 7.

The condition of the Air Kundur 3 pilot project site after 3 years of reclamation (2019–2022) was further reported by Möller et al. [132], which indicates that a former tin mining site was successfully restored through land leveling, contour terracing, soil amelioration, and native vegetation planting. These interventions reduced erosion, improved water retention, and supported rapid vegetation growth. The site evolved into a healthy ecosystem with better soil quality and higher biodiversity. Results from other reclamation projects, such as those reported by Gwenzi [133], which highlight the significance of integrated soil and water management systems in post-mining restoration, are in good agreement with these results. However, because site-specific factors like climate, soil composition, and mining history vary, exact comparisons are still difficult. However, the outcomes demonstrate how well the treatments used may restore degraded mining areas to healthy, sustainable ecosystems.

6.4. Species Choice

Post-tin mining land has soil characteristics that are less supportive of plant growth, characterized by acidic pH [34], low nutrient content [134], minimal soil-microbial population, and low water storage capacity [135]. The plant-species selection must be adjusted to the ecological conditions of the land to be reclaimed so that the revegetation process runs effectively and successfully according to the expected goals. The determination of plant species and habitus (the life form of a plant) is based on the stages and final goals of the reclamation activity. For the initial stage, planting in reclamation activities is carried out using species of cover crops, accompanied by pioneer plants in the form/habitus of trees [136]. For reclamation that purely restores the previous forest condition, reclamation is continued by using local tree species as they existed before mining. If the reclaimed land will be further utilized for community interests, then economically valuable species are selected, such as plantation crops or crops producing food, oil, rubber, and so on [137]. In determining the species, the main factors that need to be considered:

a.

The adaptability of the selected plant species to acidic and nutrient-poor soil conditions. In tree habitus, alternative native species that can be selected include Calophyllum inophyllum, Syzygium grande, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Ficus superba, which have been proven to grow well on marginal soil, and Vitex pinnata which can grow on soil with low humidity levels [138].

b.

Plant species that can improve the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil, especially from the Fabaceae family (legumes), both in shrub habitus (legume cover crop/LCC) and trees. LCC is often a plant that is planted in the early stages after mining, with its role as a soil conditioner and erosion control [139]. In post-tin mining land on Bangka Island, the LCC species Pueraria javanica has the advantage of fast biomass growth and its ability to cover the soil surface. High biomass is also produced from LCC species Calopogonium mucunoides and Mucuna pruriens. The high biomass produced from LCC greens guarantees an increase in organic matter and nitrogen in the soil through symbiosis with Rhizobium [34,140]. A study on degraded land rehabilitation of tin post-mining in Bangka Island showed that in tree habitus, the legume family of the species Gliricida sepium and Enterolobium cyclocarpum had the greatest survival and growth ability, both those treated with planting media and control. The trial also showed that at the age of three years, the fastest growing non-legume tree species was Eucalyptus urophylla [22,141] as shown in Figure 8.

c.

The selected species have economic potential for the community, so in addition to being appropriate based on ecological aspects, the community is also encouraged to participate in the land rehabilitation program to ensure its sustainability [22,142]. Several species of economically valuable plants have been proven to be able to grow on post-tin mining land, both in tree habitus and agricultural/annual crops. In tree habitus, species Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Eucalyptus urophylla, Vitex pinnata are species that can produce wood for construction and furniture materials. Calophyllum inophyllum seeds can be processed into biodiesel, so they have the potential to have economic value.

7. Discussion

Open-pit mining is a mining method that extracts minerals or ores directly from the Earth’s surface. This method is popular due to its efficiency, lower operational costs, and large-scale mineral production. However, open-pit mining has significant environmental impacts in addition to the intended economic and social impacts. The environmental impacts of open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung Province demonstrate a significant mismatch between the objectives of natural resource exploitation and ecological sustainability. These mining operations have generated numerous environmental problems, beside beneficial social and economic impacts. To effectively address these issues, our analysis highlights the importance of understanding the complex impacts of mining operations on regional ecosystems and the importance of science-based mitigation initiatives. This discussion will focus on environmental impacts in the form of: Forest Degradation and Biodiversity Loss, Degradation of Soil Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties, Socio-Economic Challenges, and Mitigation Strategies and Sustainable Management.

7.1. Forest Degradation and Biodiversity Loss

Decreases in total forest cover, as well as increases in fragmented habitats, have isolated populations that are less resilient to environmental changes and more susceptible to genetic bottlenecks. Wildlife that depends on tropical forests, especially endemic and endangered species like the Bangka slow loris (Nycticebus bancanus) experiences population decreases or local extinctions [143]. Fewer native plants may recolonize this degraded landscape and be more susceptible to being invaded by other species that further reduce local biodiversity [52,144]. According to research, invasive species, habitat fragmentation, and habitat destruction all work together to cause the local extinction of endemic species while also driving out other wildlife populations that depend on intact ecosystems [145].

Furthermore, trophic interactions and species linkages within forest ecosystems are disrupted by habitat damage brought on by mining. For instance, nitrogen cycling and soil health are hampered by the decline of soil fauna, such as detritivores and decomposers. The loss and fragmentation of habitat also negatively impact pollinating insect populations, which are crucial for the reproduction of many forest plants, food webs, and landscape’s natural recovery process. A comprehensive and multidimensional strategy should be prioritized by implementing habitat restoration, endangered species monitoring, stringent regulation and enforcement to suppress and prevent habitat damage and deforestation, and community engagement and education to enhance participation in conservation initiatives.

A comprehensive and multidimensional strategy should be prioritized by implementing habitat restoration, endangered species monitoring, stringent regulation, and enforcement to suppress and prevent habitat damage and deforestation, and community engagement and education to enhance participation in conservation initiatives. The highest effectiveness is achieved when this strategy is integrated multidimensionally. Technology-based monitoring provides basic data; habitat restoration restores ecosystem functions; in situ conservation and regulation ensure long-term protection, while community involvement guarantees program sustainability. Therefore, there is no single strategy that is sufficiently effective. The success of conserving endangered species in post-tin mining areas is largely determined by a combination of modern technology monitoring, ecosystem-based habitat restoration, in situ protection, community involvement, and strong regulatory support.

7.2. Degradation of Soil Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties

The physical, chemical, and biological effects of mining-induced soil degradation all interfere with important ecosystem functions and make efforts to restore the land more difficult. The loss of topsoil, soil compaction, and severe erosion are the main indicators of soil physical degradation. These physical alterations prevent plants from naturally regrowing, which feeds the cycle of land degradation [146]. These impacts are consistent with the reports of AbdelRahman [58] and Mensah [60], which showed that the removal of vegetation and organic-rich topsoil accelerates erosion, reduces porosity, and limits the capacity of soils to support natural regeneration. As a result, post-mining soils become nutrient-poor, highly leachable, and incapable of sustaining crop productivity.

Mining has similarly significant chemical effects mainly due to acidic conditions created by the oxidation of sulfide minerals exposed during mining operations, causing losses in soil organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which align with the findings of Pratiwi et al. [22] and Wang et al. [67]. Mercury pollution impairs the soil’s capacity to sustain life by interfering with the metabolic processes of soil microbes [24]. This statement is as expressed by Sukarman et al. [24], the presence of heavy metals such as mercury, often used in tin extraction, poses toxicity risks for soil organisms, while nutrient leaching into surrounding water bodies may trigger eutrophication [70]. These chemical effects hinder ecological recovery and agricultural output by reducing the soil’s fertility and ability to serve as a nutrient reservoir [147].

Mining operations drastically change the biological characteristics of soil, with microbial community disruptions being one of the most important consequences. Degradation is made worse by the disappearance of soil fauna. The decline of soil fauna such as earthworms and ants reduce organic matter decomposition and aeration, while microbial communities are affected by pH shifts and mercury contamination, hindering nutrient cycling [148]. The need of giving soil health become the first priority in post-mining land restoration through the revival of soil biota.

A comprehensive strategy that combines efficient soil remediation methods with sustainable mining operations is needed to address the deterioration of soil qualities by implementing topsoil management to ensure availability of nutrient-rich layers for revegetation; soil amendments like compost or biochar to neutralize acidity, increase microbial activity, and improve soil structure, these findings are consistent with Lehmann & Kleber [117], who emphasized the role of biochar in improving soil functions; phytoremediation using hyperaccumulator plants to remove heavy metals and improve soil health; microbial inoculation such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi to support vegetation regrowth and hasten the restoration of soil biological activities; erosion control like terracing and cover crops into practice, which align with the findings of Basche & DeLonge [119], who demonstrated the benefits of cover crops for reducing erosion. Hou et al. [149] used the techniques of reconstructing soil ecological structure using phosphate tailings substrate and improving acidic soil with soil conditioner and calcium-magnesium phosphate compound fertilizer. By modifying nutrient cycling, soil health, and plant community development, changes in the soil microbiome have a substantial impact on the long-term restoration of ecosystem functions in post-mining areas. Microbial diversity and particular keystone taxa are essential for establishing stability and productivity.

Nevertheless, several limitations should be noted. First, post-mining soils are highly heterogeneous depending on location, depth, and mining history, which limits the generalizability of the results. Second, most treatments were tested at small scales or over short time frames, leaving questions about their long-term sustainability. Third, while this study focused on soil properties, socio-economic aspects such as the availability and cost of ameliorants are equally important for real-world implementation.

Compared with other reclamation projects, such as the study by Möller et al. [132] in Bangka using contour terracing and native revegetation, the results similarly showed improvements in soil quality and biodiversity. This indicates that an integrative approach—combining the restoration of soil physical, chemical, and biological properties with land conservation techniques and revegetation—is the most promising strategy. Organic amendments, biochar, and microbial inoculants represent medium-term solutions, while land conservation practices and revegetation with native species serve as sustainable long-term strategies.

7.3. Socio-Economic Challenges

While mining contributes to economic growth and development, its ecological consequences underscore the need for more sustainable practices. Governments, mining companies, and local communities must collaborate to find solutions that balance economic interests with environmental protection. Many studies have suggested solutions to avoid the negative impacts of mining, but unfair compensation and unequal resource distribution often lead to unresolved conflicts. Forced mining expansion by businesses can trap communities in poverty and ignore local rights, increasing social tensions [150]. Environmental damage from mining, both during operations and after closure, harms local livelihoods, such as farming and fishing, and limits access to clean water and a healthy environment in Bangka Belitung [151]. To reduce these harms, governments should promote sustainable mining, reforestation, and cleaner technology [152]. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) should be part of mining plans to help predict and manage risks [153]. Achieving a balance between economic development and ecological conservation is crucial for the long-term sustainability of regions like Bangka Belitung with a huge area of post mining land. Long-term sustainability depends on balancing development with ecological protection. To achieve balancing development with ecological protection, it is necessary to collect data on land conditions such as topography, physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil, climate, and existing land use as well as land tenure for setting land use planning [154]. The distributions of these data are presented spatially in maps with a scale sufficient for developing regional spatial plans, so that the arrangement of land uses is adjusted to the land capabilities and the needs of the community in post-mining areas. Several land uses that need to be determined in a spatial configuration according to their land capabilities are the land use for conservation forests, plantations, food agriculture, aquaculture, residential areas, offices, infrastructures of public and social facilities. With the Regional Spatial Plan and post-mining land uses plan proposed by the Government and approved by Parliament, social and economic development on ex-mining land post mining closure can be implemented and the sustainability of the ecosystem and its functions of sup-porting life can be developed.

Decisions about resource use must be made openly and fairly, with clear communication of both benefits and risks [155]. The Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) process is essential to ensure communities fully understand the impacts of mining and post mining closure. Without it, unequal risk and benefit sharing will lead to more conflicts.

A key component of post-mining land rehabilitation is the restoration of natural vegetation, which stabilizes soil, improves nutrient cycling, and provides wildlife habitats. To create ideal conditions for the gradual reintroduction of late-successional species, it is possible to first introduce fast-growing pioneer species to stabilize the soil and offer shade [145]. Recovery processes can be sped up by using cut-ting-edge soil restoration methods, such as the use of biofertilizers, soil additives, and bioremediation techniques.

Reclamation initiatives that incorporate waste stones might help lessen environmental harm. While the careful placement of non-acid-generating materials can lessen the production of acid mine drainage, the use of geotextiles and bioengineering techniques helps stabilize slopes and minimize erosion. According to research, using microbial consortia can improve metal stability in mine tailings, hastening the contaminants’ natural abatement [25].

Furthermore, several corrective actions must be taken regarding three critical areas, i.e., a. governance reforms; b. strengthening the legal frameworks; and c. monitoring systems to address weak oversight of illegal mining and operations. First, Governance reforms are the most urgent action focusing on repurposing regional authority, promoting transparency, and fostering multi-stakeholder collaboration. Law Number 3 of 2020, which regulates criminal administration, does not yet specify a mechanism for enforcing illegal mining. This has led to multiple interpretations by law enforcement officials. Therefore, each law enforcement agency provides different interpretations, with only the Supreme Court being progressive in requiring training and certification for judges [156]. Granting authority over artisanal and small-scale mining permits is the first step to enable context-specific oversight.

Second, the current legal framework is riddled with loopholes and is often not strictly enforced. Therefore, legal reform must close these loopholes and enhance deterrence effects by imposing stricter sanctions, including increasing fines and prison sentences for illegal miners and their financial backers including free riders, simplifying the People’s Mining Permit (IPR) to formalize small-scale mining, and mandating reclamation bonds to be independently verified before being issued [157,158,159].

Third, which is no less important, is an effective monitoring system carried out through effective supervision using a modern and integrated monitoring system that can track mining activities and identify violations in real-time. Real-time monitoring and prompt risk warnings for underground miners’ safety, health, and weariness are critical for developing intelligent mines, increasing production safety, and protecting miners’ well-being. This pertains to the collecting, transmission, and processing of pertinent data [160]. Implement a digital monitoring system that combines satellite imaging, drone surveillance, and ground-based sensors to detect illegal mining and track reclamation work. This technology can be used to establish a “red flag” system for law enforcement, allowing for more preemptive and targeted interventions. Action to create a single, publicly accessible web platform for all mining licenses, data, and reports. This approach would act as a single source of truth, decreasing potential for corruption while increasing oversight efficiency [161]. This initiative also represents a significant advancement in safety protocols, not only minimizing the risk of accidents but also improving operational efficiency and productivity in coal mines. By providing a comprehensive framework for establishing new standards will contribute to sustainability in the mining sector while prioritizing miners’ well-being [162].

7.4. Mitigation Strategies and Sustainable Management

To set up mitigation and sustainable management strategies to combat the significant ecological harm, such as in Bangka-Belitung, Governments must incorporate global best practices for sustainable resource mining, while strengthening current mining laws to stop illicit mining and environmentally damaging activities. Adopting legally binding environmental performance criteria, as those set forth by the Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management (GISTM) and the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM), can offer a thorough framework for ethical mining practices [163]. The experiences of Malaysia in developing mitigation and sustainable management strategies are, among others: Analyzing environmental impacts of tin tailings and proposing governance and technical remediation strategies for effective reclamation [164]; turning an abandoned opencast tin mine into an urban development hub, showing socio-economic benefits of adaptive reuse [165].

Land use planning, environmental impact assessments (EIAs), mandates for biodiversity conservation, and post-mining rehabilitation requirements are important areas that need regulatory reinforcement [154]. To identify illicit mining operations and track land use changes in real time, government organizations should deploy cutting-edge monitoring technology like as remote sensing, satellite images, and geographic information systems (GIS) [144].

The benefits of remote sensing technology for monitoring and evaluating ecological quality were also demonstrated by Wang et al. [166] by combining ZhuHai-1 and Landsat 8 data and building an integrated remote sensing ecological index to monitor the impact of ecological restoration of reclamation areas. Majid et al. [167] utilized a combination of temporal, spectral, and derived features from annual satellite images with the Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) method to determine land cover types in Central Bangka Regency and analyze their changes in 2020 and 2024. Spectral features used include Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI), Ratio Vegetation Index (RVI), and Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), while Winata et al. [168] employed the Maximum Likelihood Classification method for satellite image analysis to detect land cover changes in Central Bangka Regency.

In the economic sector, tin mining operations should be followed by diversification of local economic potential like ecotourism or sustainable agriculture. Regions can reduce these risks while fostering ecological restoration and community well-being by switching to alternative industries. Because of their minimal negative effects on the environment, ability to generate employment, and compatibility with international sustainability objectives like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN, ecotourism and sustainable agriculture hold great promise.

By combining ecotourism and sustainable agriculture, their respective advantages can be increased through synergistic effects. Agrotourism, for example, can diversify revenue streams while fostering cultural interchange and environmental education by fusing agricultural pursuits with tourism. In addition to highlighting the importance of economic diversification for sustainable post-mining development, this conversation offers a road map for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to further this goal. Tin mining areas can move from economies reliant on resources to prosperous, sustainable communities by adopting creative and inclusive strategies.

8. Conclusions

Open-pit tin mining in Bangka Belitung has led to significant environmental degradation, with extensive impacts on vegetation, biodiversity, and soil health. The large-scale destruction of forests, coupled with the loss of native species and habitats, has resulted in reduced biodiversity and irreversible changes to the local ecosystem. The mining practices have fragmented the landscape, leaving behind barren lands that are unsuitable for natural regeneration. Addressing soil degradation requires the adoption of sustainable mining practices and effective soil rehabilitation strategies, which are necessary to restore fertility and prevent further environmental harm. Restoration efforts that focus on soil quality will be crucial for the regeneration of mining-impacted landscapes.

Ultimately, balancing economic development with environmental conservation is crucial for the future of Bangka Belitung and similar mining regions. While the economic benefits of tin mining are undeniable, they come at a substantial ecological cost. To mitigate these impacts, policies must be put in place that enforce sustainable mining practices, promote environmental responsibility, and incentivize the use of cleaner extraction technologies. Collaborative efforts between government authorities, mining companies, and local communities are needed to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into the decision-making process. By prioritizing sustainability, it is possible to balance the economic benefits of mining with the preservation of the region’s rich natural resources.