Water Policy Reforms in South Korea: A Historical Review and Ongoing Challenges for Sustainable Water Governance and Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of Water Resources in South Korea
2.1. Physical Characteristics
2.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics
2.3. Environmental Characteristics
3. Water Policy Reforms in South Korea
3.1. The Japanese Colonial Period (1910 to 1945)
3.2. The Postwar Recovery Period (1945 to 1959)
3.3. Modern River Basin Governance System Development (1960 to 1990)
3.4. Comprehensive Management of Water Resources: Environment-Friendly River Basin Development (1990 to Present)
4. Challenges for Water Policy in South Korea
4.1. Environmental and Physical Challenges
4.1.1. Damage to Water Quality and Ecosystems of River Basins
4.1.2. Regional Water Use Conflict
4.2. Socio-Economic Challenges
4.2.1. Rapid Rise in Water Use as Economic Growth
4.2.2. Inadequate Water Pricing Mechanism
5. Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Baron, J.S.; Poff, N.L.; Angermeier, P.L.; Dahm, C.N.; Gleick, P.H.; Hairston, N.G.; Jackson, R.B.; Johnston, C.A.; Richter, B.D.; Steinman, A.D. Meeting ecological and socieal needs for freshwater. Ecol. Appl. 2002, 12, 1247–1260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vugteveen, P.; Lenders, H.J.R. The duality of integrated water management: Science, policy or both? J. Integr. Environ. Sci. 2009, 6, 51–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Araral, E.; Wang, Y. Water demand management: Review of literature and comparison in South-East Asia. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 2013, 29, 434–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nguyen, T.T.; Ruidisch, M.; Koellner, T.; Tenhunen, J. Synergies and tradeoffs between nitrate leaching and net farm income: The case of nitrogen best management practices in South Korea. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2014, 186, 160–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). Meeting the Water Reform Challenge; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Juliet, C.S.; Gleick, P.H.; Cooley, H. Chapter 7: U.S. Water Policy Reform. In The World’s Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources; Gleick, P.H., Ed.; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2011; pp. 143–155. [Google Scholar]
- Quevauviller, P. European water policy and research on water-related topics—An overview. J. Hydrol. 2014, 518, 180–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, K.U.; Koh, J.K.; Lee, M.H. The Dynamics of Water Policy Change in South Korea. 2007. Available online: http://www.newater.uni-osnabrueck.de/caiwa/data/papers%20session/F1/KoUn%20Kim%20et%20al%202007.pdf (accessed on 17 January 2017).
- Luan, I.O.B. Singapore Water Management Policies and Practices. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 2010, 26, 65–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rees, J.A. Regulation and private participation in the water and sanitation sector. Nat. Resour. Forum 1998, 22, 95–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seppälä, O.T. Effective water and sanitation policy reform implementation: Need for systemic approach and stakeholder participation. Water Policy 2002, 4, 367–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, S.Y.; Kwak, S.J.; Yoo, S.H. Valuing environmental impacts of large dam construction in Korea: An application of choice experiments. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2008, 28, 256–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nguyen, T.T.; Hoang, V.N.; Seo, B. Cost and environmental efficiency of rice farms in South Korea. Agric. Econ. 2012, 43, 369–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD). Evaluation of Agricultural Policy Reforms in Korea; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Cho, C.J. The Korean growth-management programs: Issues, problems and possible reforms. Land Use Policy 2002, 19, 13–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kwak, S.J.; Russell, C.S. Contingent valuation in Korean environmental planning: A pilot application to the protection of drinking water quality in Seoul. Environ. Resour. Econ. 1994, 4, 511–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Labadie, J.W.; Fontane, D.G.; Lee, J.H.; Ko, I.W. Decision support system for adaptive river basin management: Application to the Geum River basin, Korea. Water Int. 2007, 32, 397–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, K.M. Improvement of the Han River Watershed Management Fund Policies; National Assembly Research Service (NARS) Issue Report 160; NARS: Seoul, Korea, 2012.
- Shin, H.J.; Jeon, C.H.; Choi, I.C.; Yeon, I.C. Estimation of beneficiary’s willingness to pay in mid and down-stream area to the water quality improvements in upper Bukhan River Basin. Seoul Stud. 2009, 10, 91–106. (In Korean) [Google Scholar]
- Moore, M.L.; von der Porten, S.; Plummer, R.; Brandes, O.M.; Baird, J. Water policy reform and innovation: A systematic review. Environ. Sci. Policy 2014, 38, 263–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wheida, E.; Verhoeven, R. The role of “virtual water” in the water resources management of the Libyan Jamahiriya. Desalination 2007, 205, 312–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilder, M. Water governance in Mexico: Political and economic apertures and a shifting state-citizen relationship. Ecol. Soc. 2010, 15, 22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Min, K.J. The Role of the State and the Market in the Korean Water Sector: Strategic Decision Marking Approach for Good Governance. Doctor’s Thesis, University of Bath School of Management, Bath, UK, January 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, J.K.; Jung, S.; Eom, J.S.; Jang, C.; Lee, Y.; Jeffrey, S.O.; Jung, M.S.; Kim, B. Dissolved and particulate organic carbon concentrations in stream water and relationships with land use in multiple-use watersheds of the Han River (Korea). Water Int. 2013, 38, 326–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sampson, M. Geomorphoology. In North Korea: A Geographic Overview; Palka, E.J., Galgano, F.A., Eds.; West Point: New York, NY, USA, 2002; pp. 23–29. [Google Scholar]
- Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation of Korea (MOLIT) & Korea Water Resources Corporation (K-water). Water for the Future: Water and Sustainable Development; K-Water: Daejeon, Korea, 2015.
- Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transportation of Korea (MOLIT). (2011–2020): Water Vision 2020 [The Long-Term Comprehensive Water Resource Plan (2011–2020): The Second Revised Water Vision 2020]; MOLIT: Sejong, Korea, 2011. (In Korean)
- Koo, J.H.; Yoon, J.Y.; Sim, K.H.; Cho, H.K. A counterfactual assessment for interagency collaboration on water quality: The case of the Geum River basin, South Korea. Water Int. 2015, 40, 664–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, J.S. Measuring the economic benefits of the Youngsan River Restoration Project in Kwangju, Korea, using contingent valuation. Water Int. 2012, 37, 859–870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Statistics Korea (KOSTAT), South Korea. National Account [Data Set]. 2015. Available online: http://kosis.kr/eng/statisticsList/statisticsList_01List.jsp?vwcd=MT_ETITLE&parentId=L#SubCont (accessed on 1 April 2016).
- The Bank of Korea (ECOS), South Korea. National Account [Data Set]. 2015. Available online: https://ecos.bok.or.kr/ (accessed on 2 April 2016).
- Statistics Korea (KOSTAT), South Korea. The Population and Housing Census [Data Set]. 2015. Available online: http://kosis.kr/statisticsList/statisticsList_01List.jsp?vwcd=MT_ZTITLE&parentId=A#SubCont (accessed on 1 April 2016).
- Choi, J.; Hearne, R.; Lee, K.; Roberts, D. The relation between water pollution and economic growth using the environmental Kuznets curve: A case study in South Korea. Water Int. 2015, 40, 499–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER). 2012 National Water Quality Assessment; NIER: Incheon, Korea, 2013; (In Korean). Available online: http://webbook.me.go.kr/DLi-File/NIER/09/018/5552633.pdf (accessed on 10 May 2016).
- Deason, J.P.; Shad, T.M.; Sherk, G.W. Water policy in the United States: A perspective. Water Policy 2001, 3, 175–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oh, B.H. 2012 Modularization of Korea’s Development Experience: Korea’s River Basin Management Policy; Korea Development Institute School of Public Policy and Management: Seoul, Korea, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Yoon, S.Y. The water resource policy in South Korea. Water Future 2004, 37, 70–76. (In Korean) [Google Scholar]
- Lee, S.; Choi, G.W. Governance in a river restoration project in South Korea: The case of Incheon. Water Resour. Manag. 2012, 26, 1165–1182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Um, M.J.; Kwak, S.J.; Kim, T.Y. Estimating willingness to pay for improved drinking water quality using averting behavior method with perception measure. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2002, 21, 287–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Environmental Performance Review; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, S. Comparative research on river basin management in Korea and Japan. Korea Rev. Int. Stud. 2011, 14, 3–17. [Google Scholar]
- Woo, H.; Kim, W. Floods on the Han River in Korea. Water Int. 1997, 22, 230–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, K.; Kim, K.; Yoo, C. Decision of minimum rain gauge density in a combined radar-rain gauge rainfall observation system: A case study of the Imjin River Basin, Korea. Water Int. 2010, 35, 49–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, Y.I.; Park, D.; Shin, G.; Kim, C.; Grigg, N.S. Strategic environmental assessment for dam planning: A case study of South Korea′s experience. Water Int. 2010, 35, 397–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmer, M.A.; Bernhard, E.S.; Allan, J.D.; Lake, P.S.; Alexander, G.; Brooks, S.; Carr, J.; Clayton, S.; Dahm, C.N.; Follstad Shah, J.; et al. Standards for ecologically successful river restoration. J. Appl. Ecol. 2005, 42, 208–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biswas, A.K. Integrated water resources management: A reassessment. Water Int. 2004, 29, 248–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biswas, A.K. Integrated water resources management: Is it working? Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 2008, 24, 5–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biswas, A.K. Water policies in the developing world. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 2001, 17, 489–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (IPCC). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of the Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, NY, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, Y.J.; Jeong, U.S. Water Resources: Their Current State and Assessment; Research Report: Working Paper 2011-01; Korea Environment Institute: Seoul, Korea, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, G.Y.; Bae, I.H. A Study on the Strategies of Acquiring Water Resources by Using Wells Near Surface Water; Policy Research Projects 2008-11; Gyeonggi Research Institute: Suwon, Korea, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, B.; Choi, K.; Kim, C.; Lee, U.; Kim, Y.H. The effect of summer monsoon on the distribution and loading of organic carbon in a deep reservoir, Lake Soyang, Korea. Water Res. 2000, 34, 3495–3504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG). 2013 White Paper for Improvement of Water Use Charge; SMG: Seoul, Korea, 2014. (In Korean)
- Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Feasible Financing Strategies for Water Supply and Sanitation; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Choi, I.C.; Kim, H.N.; Shin, H.J.; Tenhunen, J.; Nguyen, T.T. Willingness to Pay for a Highland Agricultural Restriction Policy to Improve Water Quality in South Korea: Correcting Anomalous Preference in Contingent Valuation Method. Water 2016, 8, 547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, H.J.; Kim, H.N.; Jeon, C.H.; Jo, M.H.; Nguyen, T.T.; Tenhunen, J. Benefit transfer for water management along the Han River in South Korea using Meta-Regression Analysis. Water 2016, 8, 492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanley, N.; Kirkpatrick, H.; Simpson, I.; Oglethorpe, D. Principles for the provision of public goods from agriculture: Modeling moorland conservation in Scotland. Land Econ. 1998, 74, 102–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mauerhofer, V.; Hubacek, K.; Coleby, A. From polluter pays to provider gets: Distribution of rights and costs under payments for ecosystem services. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dupont, D.P.; Renzetti, S. The role of water in manufacturing. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2001, 18, 411–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yoo, S.H. Urban Water Consumption and Regional Economic Growth: The Case of Taejeon, Korea. Water Resour. Manag. 2007, 21, 1353–1361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yoo, S.H.; Yang, C.Y. Role of water utility in the Korean national economy. Int. J. Water Resour. Dev. 1999, 15, 527–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ministry of Environment of Korea (MOE). Statistics of Waterworks 2013; MOE: Sejong, Korea, 2014.
- Kim, K.M. The Standard for the Water Supply Fare and Problems on the Current Rate Base; NARS Report: Recent Publications; National Assembly Research Service: Seoul, Korea, 2013; Volume 709.
- Park, D.H.; Choi, H.J. Panel Estimation of Price Elasticities on Residential Water Demand in Korea. J. Korean Soc. Water Wastewater 2006, 20, 527–534. [Google Scholar]
- Jeon, C.H.; Yeom, M.B.; Hong, S.P. A Study on Investment Costs Sharing of Multiregional Water Supply Facilities; K-Water: Daejeon, Korea, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, G.I. Am Estimation Model of Water Demand; Korea Environmental Technology Research Institute: Seoul, Korea, 1996. Available online: http://webbook.me.go.kr/DLi-File/F000/149/14976_27193.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2017).
- Kwak, S.J.; Lee, C.K. Estimating the Demand for Domestic Water in Seoul: Application of the Error Correction Model. Environ. Resour. Econ. Rev. 2002, 11, 81–98. [Google Scholar]
- Mun, H.J.; Kang, H.S.; Yoon, S.J. A Study on Policies Improving the Perception of Rational Water Use; Research Reports: Project Reports 2013-02-02; Korea Environment Institution: Seoul, Korea, 2013. [Google Scholar]
Season | Winter | Spring | Summer | Fall | Sum | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | Jun. | Jul. | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | |
Weather | Cold, Dry | Mild, Dry | Hot, Humid | Serene, Dry | |||||||||
distinction | Snow | Clear | Typhoon, Heavy Rainfall | Clear | |||||||||
Monthly average precipitation (mm, %) | 23.2 (1.8) | 27.1 (2.1) | 31.8 (2.5) | 49.8 (3.9) | 77.1 (6.0) | 94.5 (7.4) | 166 (13) | 287.9 (22.5) | 278.3 (21.8) | 151.0 (11.8) | 48.2 (3.8) | 42.4 (3.3) | 1277.4 (100.0) |
Monthly average renewable water resources (billion m3, %) | 1.59 (2.1) | 1.38 (1.8) | 1.52 (2.0) | 2.18 (2.9) | 3.07 (4.1) | 3.86 (5.1) | 7.31 (9.7) | 18.19 (24.2) | 18.41 (24.5) | 12.08 (16.1) | 3.55 (4.7) | 2.12 (2.8) | 75.26 (100.0) |
Period | Features | Problems |
---|---|---|
Japanese colonial period (1910–1945) | Construction of hydropower dams in North Korea for industrial development and irrigation dams in South Korea for land cultivation | Mainly focused on stable food and energy provision for the Japanese |
Postwar recovery period (1945–1950s) | Lack of electric power provision due to North Korea’s interruption to power supply after liberation from Japan | Limited effectiveness of the program and a single purpose development project at regional focus (low population density and predominance of small-scale industry) |
Establishment of a 5-year Electric Power Development Plan | ||
Construction of 158 new irrigation dams
| ||
Modern river basin governance system development (1960s–1980s) | Promulgation of River Basin Law focusing on water supply and flood control (1961) | Deterioration of water quality in all water basins (high-intensity use of river as a resource utilized for economic growth) |
Establishment of the Ten-Year Comprehensive Water Resource Development Plan(1966–1975) and Specific Multipurpose Dam Act (1966)
| ||
Revision of the River Basin Law (1971) | ||
Formulation of the Four Major River Basin Comprehensive Development Plan (1971–1981)
| ||
Establishment of the Comprehensive Long-term (1981–2001) Water Resource Development Plan (1980)
| ||
Comprehensive management of water resources: environment-friendly river basin development (1990s–present) | Tap water contamination and other environmental accidents (Trihalomethanes in 1990, Phenol in 1991, etc.) | A growing need for improvement and reorganization of water management system and institutions Conflicts over water rights (water supply and quality) between local governments (high- and lowland areas) |
Establishment of a new Long-term Comprehensive Water Resource Development Plan (1991–2011)
| ||
Promulgation of the Natural Environment Conservation Act (1991)
| ||
Revision of the Long-term Comprehensive Plan for Water Resources (Amended and Supplemented Plan of 1997–2011)
| ||
Revision of the River Basin Law (1999)
| ||
Establishment of Water Vision 2020 (2001–2020)
| ||
Establishment of the First Revision of Water Vision 2020 (2006)
| ||
Revision of the River Basin Law (2007) | ||
Implementation of river basin oriented national land renovation projects (four-river restoration project of 2008–2012)
|
Classification (million m3/Year) | Number of Dams | Total Water Storage | Flood Control | Water Supply |
---|---|---|---|---|
Multipurpose | 15 | 12,588.9 | 2197.6 | 10,883.1 |
Hydroelectric | 12 | 1793.8 | 266.0 | 1335.0 |
Water supply | 19 | 609.0 | 23.5 | 880.5 |
Estuary | 12 | 1258.3 | 0.0 | 2930.0 |
Irrigation | 6 | 2801.8 | 19.0 | 2742.0 |
Irrigation reservoir | 17,643 | 2457.0 | 0.0 | 2457.0 |
Flood control | 1 | 2630.0 | 2630.0 | 0.0 |
Total | 17,708 | 24,138.8 | 5136.1 | 21,227.6 |
Challenges | Implications |
---|---|
Conflicts over water quality and supply between local governments in high- versus lowland areas | Need for a new sharing criterion of benefits and costs from water quality policy (e.g., water use charge) between high- and lowland areas Application of the provider gets principle considering provision of environmental services (payment for ecosystem services) |
Inadequate water pricing mechanism (outdated water facilities, inefficient water demand and quality management) | Rational water pricing recovering the production costs based on the full cost recovery principle to effectively use and manage water Supporting low income households and the upstream areas damaged from dam construction and economic restrictions that result in the process of water quality protection Improving outdated water facilities and strengthening efficient water use and demand management (water saving, environment conservation) |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Choi, I.-C.; Shin, H.-J.; Nguyen, T.T.; Tenhunen, J. Water Policy Reforms in South Korea: A Historical Review and Ongoing Challenges for Sustainable Water Governance and Management. Water 2017, 9, 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090717
Choi I-C, Shin H-J, Nguyen TT, Tenhunen J. Water Policy Reforms in South Korea: A Historical Review and Ongoing Challenges for Sustainable Water Governance and Management. Water. 2017; 9(9):717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090717
Chicago/Turabian StyleChoi, Ik-Chang, Hio-Jung Shin, Trung Thanh Nguyen, and John Tenhunen. 2017. "Water Policy Reforms in South Korea: A Historical Review and Ongoing Challenges for Sustainable Water Governance and Management" Water 9, no. 9: 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090717
APA StyleChoi, I.-C., Shin, H.-J., Nguyen, T. T., & Tenhunen, J. (2017). Water Policy Reforms in South Korea: A Historical Review and Ongoing Challenges for Sustainable Water Governance and Management. Water, 9(9), 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9090717