Evolution of Two Urbanized Estuaries: Environmental Change, Legal Framework, and Implications for Sea-Level Rise Vulnerability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Reconstruction and Mapping of Environmental Histories
2.2. Analysis of Planning Literature and Legal Documents
3. Results
3.1. Environmental Histories of the Estuaries
3.1.1. The Tagus Estuary
3.1.2. The San Francisco Bay
3.1.3. Comparison
3.2. Legal Context
3.2.1. Lisbon and Portuguese Law
3.2.2. San Francisco and United States Law
4. Discussion
4.1. Property and Land Use in Estuarine Lowlands
4.2. Environmental Protection Standards and the Concept of “High Water Line”
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Metropolitan Areas | San Francisco Bay Area | Lisbon Metropolitan Area |
Population | 7,150,739 a | 2,821,876 b |
Total area (km2) | 17,931 | 3002 |
Pop. Density (people per km2) | 399 | 940 |
Estuaries | San Francisco Bay | Tagus Estuary |
Water surface at high tide (km2) | 1260 c | 320 d |
Mudflats (km2) | 118 e | 152 f |
Low marsh (km2) | 19.9 g | 4.4 h |
Salt Ponds (km2) | 239 i | <1 |
Mean tidal range (m) | 2.3 j | 2.4 d |
Mean tidal prism (m3) | 14.7 × 108 k | 7.5 × 108 d |
River Basins | Sacramento—San Joaquin Basin | Tagus Basin |
Catchment area (km2) | 153,794 | 80,629 |
Average annual unimpaired flow into estuary (hm3) | 34,819 l | 17,044 m |
Average annual flow into estuary (hm3) | ~25,000 n | ~12,500 l |
Average annual sediment influx into estuary (metric ton/year) | 1–2 × 106 n | 1–5 × 106 ° |
Sources for Each Reconstruction | Lisbon | San Francisco | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Maps | Other Documents | Maps | Other Documents | |
12,000 Years before Present Figures 2a and 3a | Vis 2008, Dias 1997 [23,24] | Fletcher 2007, Schriek 2007, Leorri 2013 [26,27,29] | Atwater 1977, Atwater 1979 [16,17] | Okamoto 2011, Barnard 2013, Smith 2011 [6,51,52] |
4000 Y.B.P. Figures 2b and 3b | Vis 2008, Dias 1997, Taborda 2009, NASA 2009 [23,24,47,48] | Fletcher 2007, Schriek 2007, Leorri 2013 [26,27,29] | Atwater 1977, Atwater 1979 [16,17] | Okamoto 2011, Anderson 2013b, Barnard 2013, Smith 2011, Goman 2008 [6,15,51,52,53] |
1000 Y.B.P. Figures 2c and 3c | Seco 1561, Vis 2008, Gendron 1757, Eça 1767 [9,23,30,31] | Fletcher 2007, Martins 2010, Beirante 1998 [26,28,41] | Atwater 1979, Watson 2013 [17,54] | Anderson 2013a and 2013b, Kirwan 2011, Barnard 2013, Goman 2008, Watson 2013 [14,15,20,51,53,54] |
ca. 1800 Figures 2d and 3d | Vis 2008, Gendron 1757, Eça 1767, Cabral 1790, Costa 1809 and 1813, Lamotte 1821, Silva 1847 [23,30,31,32,33,34,35,36] | Martins 2010, Matias 2012 [28,55] | De Mofras 1844, Atwater 1979, Goals Project 1999, Watson 2013 [11,17,18,54] | Anderson 2013a and 2013b, Swanson 1975, Kondolf 2008 [14,15,56,57] |
Developed landfill and 20th century projects Figure 6 | Silva 1847, Lopes 1930 and 1945, Instituto Hidrográfico 2012, COS 2007 [36,37,38,39,50] | Costa 1999, Duarte 2013 [5,58] | Watson 2013, BCDC 1998 [54,59] | Swanson 1975, Kondolf 2008 [56,57] |
Current Situation Figures 1, 2e and 3e | Instituto Hidrográfico 2012, Vale 1987, Gameiro 2007, Ribeiro 2003, Taborda 2009, NASA 2009, COS 2007 [39,44,45,46,47,48,50] | Martins 2010, Duarte 2013 [28,58] | Goals Project 1999 [18] | Swanson 1975, Kondolf 2008 [56,57] |
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Pinto, P.J.; Kondolf, G.M. Evolution of Two Urbanized Estuaries: Environmental Change, Legal Framework, and Implications for Sea-Level Rise Vulnerability. Water 2016, 8, 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110535
Pinto PJ, Kondolf GM. Evolution of Two Urbanized Estuaries: Environmental Change, Legal Framework, and Implications for Sea-Level Rise Vulnerability. Water. 2016; 8(11):535. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110535
Chicago/Turabian StylePinto, Pedro J., and G. Mathias Kondolf. 2016. "Evolution of Two Urbanized Estuaries: Environmental Change, Legal Framework, and Implications for Sea-Level Rise Vulnerability" Water 8, no. 11: 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8110535