Stakeholders’ Perceptions on the Formulation of Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Governance: A Case of the Water Sector in the Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa Local Municipalities, South Africa

Abstract

Given the persistent drought disasters, the Amathole District Municipality grapples with severe water scarcity issues, particularly affecting local municipalities such as Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa. Consequently, the municipalities are challenged by severe climate change and governance-related water scarcity. Thus, investigating climate change adaptation policy formulation and governance from the perspective of local communities can provide valuable insights into effective climate change adaptation governance. Employing a mixed research approach, this study investigates stakeholders’ perceptions of the formulation process and approaches to climate change adaptation policy and governance in the water sector using narrative analysis and descriptive statistics survey data. The study revealed that policy formulation is challenged by a bureaucratic water governance system, as most of the respondents (70%) were uncertain about their roles in climate change adaptation policy formulation, compared to 30% who were able to partially articulate their roles. Thus, 66% of respondents indicated that they were not involved in climate change adaptation in water resource management. This underscores that most stakeholders are ‘locked out’ from divulging their decisions in climate change adaptation policy formulation. This study will help municipalities develop proper climate change adaptation strategies based on local knowledge to enhance their resilience against climate change disasters.

1. Introduction

Globally, over two billion people are battling water scarcity due to climate change [1]. It is estimated that 4 billion people currently suffer from severe water stress for at least one month a year [2]. As water demand continues to increase, it is predicted that by 2030, nearly half of the world’s population will live in regions with significant water stress, leading to displacement [1]. Therefore, escaping an unpleasant state is especially crucial considering the growing water quantity and quality challenges observed worldwide, as well as the strain that climate change trends are placing on water resources [3,4]. Some African countries, such as South Africa, are already categorized as water scarce. For instance, it has the lowest runoff and is one of the 30 driest countries globally, having almost 40% less rainfall than the global average (990 mm) [3]. Consequently, the country has been facing significant pressure regarding water sustainability over the past decade due to enhanced water demand with an increased population, poor water resource governance, poor investment in water infrastructure, and frequent droughts [4]. Additionally, the country’s current water supply is adversely challenged by inadequate aquifers, the unpredictability of rainfall patterns [3], and high levels of pollution in existing water resources [5].Therefore, it is projected that water scarcity in the country is expected to escalate by 2030 [6] and reach its peak by 2040 [3], especially with current climate change.

Thus, the vulnerability of the water sector is exacerbated by climate change effects, which have significantly changed rainfall volumes and patterns due to changes in precipitation, increased occurrence of weather extremes such as droughts, increased uncertainties, and stress on available water resources in the country [7,8]. The evaporation losses are often three times greater than rainfall due to high temperatures with little rainfall and uneven distribution, with some regions receiving less than 100 mm per year on average [8]. This is because most regions of South Africa experience frequent droughts coupled with high temperatures, which have heightened the vulnerability of the water sector to climate change impacts [9]. The severe effects of climate change on freshwater resources are due to rising temperature levels, evaporation, and variations in rainfall patterns [7].

Thus, climate change is a challenge affecting various actors and policymakers across various societal actors in South Africa [10]. This is because of the persistent challenges of water scarcity due to ineffective climate change adaptation in various sectors, including the water sector. Therefore, integrating various stakeholder perceptions into climate change adaptation policy planning is critical for building resilience against climate change disasters [11]. However, disentangling stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities in policy formulation and climate change adaptation to water resources management reveals more areas of confusion and requires consideration [6]. A lack of clarity of responsibilities has been identified as one of the most pressing reasons for ineffective action to tackle multifaceted and integrative climate governance in the water sector in South Africa [12,13]. It is often unclear who is taking on which roles and responsibilities between key water actors and institutions at various levels, hence, this creates coordination deficits between water management institutions [12]. Little is known about the ideal institutional structures, functions, and processes that encourage effective and efficient climate change adaptation governance in complex countries such as South Africa [12]. Therefore, the complexity of climate/water governance requires that local policymakers understand and integrate stakeholders’ views into climate change policy formulation and implementation in South Africa [14].

However, the climate change adaptation policy planning is compromised by the bureaucratic nature of provincial/government institutions, as most of the planning is carried out at the provincial/national government level, where institutional memory is domiciled, without the involvement of the local community [14,15]. Hence, integrative and inclusive climate water governance is lacking, which impedes broad stakeholder collaboration in centralized water planning [15]. Thus, various institutions implement climate change adaptation strategies concurrently, with minimum coordination leading to an ineffective use of resources and inefficient communication practices [16], Thus, there is a gap in the governance, mainstreaming, and implementation of climate change adaptation in South Africa [17].

Furthermore, despite the frequency of droughts in South Africa, including in the Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities, the institutional responses are mostly reactive in their approaches to water management and dealing with droughts in an emergency mode rather than these being a regular recurrent feature [3,18]. Thus, community-level institutions are often not advised on drought interventions [13]. This has severe consequences for the most vulnerable groups, such as women and children [10], as they lack the voice to influence and participate in climate change adaptation policy-making processes [19]. Additionally, the reactive approaches to climate change disasters result in insufficient water service delivery, particularly during droughts [4]. This escalates water scarcity conflicts in most South African municipalities [20,21]. Water scarcity disputes occur due to the negligence of the relevant authorities, such as the municipalities, who cannot ensure consistent, effective, and efficient water supply, which increases protests due to water scarcity setbacks in South Africa [22].

Therefore, considering how adaptation policies and strategies are formulated by considering who influences the nature of this intervention and who participates in their formation is a critical issue in the climate change adaptation landscape in South Africa [23,24,25].Climate change adaptation policy calls for an inclusive approach to tackle the effects of climate change and increase resilience in various sectors. However, this has yet to be realized in various sectors, including in the water sector [12], as the climate change adaptation policies are fragmented and sector specific [16]. The crisis is characterized by the weakness of national and local government institutions to effectively lead and implement climate change adaptation policies in the face of rapid economic deterioration [26]. This is because critical players and actors are excluded (locked out’), which can frustrate implementation actions regarding who frames the knowledge frontier, who is included in policy and decision making, and who is accountable for climate change adaptation. Against this background, this paper focuses on examining the roles of actors and their engagements in climate change adaptation policies and governance approaches in the water sector. This study also investigates power disparities in the climate change governance system, particularly examining whose voice matters in climate change policy formulation on water resources management in the Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities.

2. Materials and Methods

This study obtained ethical approval from the Inter-Faculty Research Ethics Committee (IFREC) at the University of Fort Hare (ethics number REC-270710-028-RA Level 01). Before conducting the study permission was sought to conduct research in the local municipalities of Ngqushwa and Raymond Mhlaba.

2.1. Study Area

Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities (Figure 1) are situated within the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, particularly in Amathole District Municipality (ADM). The two municipalities fall under the jurisdiction of Amathole District Municipality. This implies that Amathole District Municipality (ADM) serves as both the water service authority and water service provider for the 2 local municipalities [24]. The average rainfall in the local municipalities is less than 500 mm per year, and they were both declared drought areas in 2015 [4]. Therefore, in recent years, local municipalities have been exposed to devastating droughts [4]. Inequality, poverty levels, food insecurity, and losses of farm jobs (unemployment) have increased significantly in the local municipalities, due to climate change [27]. Ngqushwa local municipality covers an area of 2245 km^2, and it comprises a total of 12 wards [28]. The estimate of the population of the municipality is 66,227, and the population is unevenly distributed across 12 wards [28]. Raymond Mhlaba Municipality spans about 6474 km² and comprises 23 wards [29]. It is estimated that the municipality has a population of 163,000 [29].

This study focused on the local municipalities within Amathole District due to its designation as a high-risk area following recurring droughts and water scarcity challenges [23] Hence, it is imperative to investigate stakeholders’ perceptions of climate change adaptation policy formulation and governance to provide valuable insights into policy approaches to foster water sustainability amid climate change disasters.

2.2. Research Design

Research design is defined as a proposal or plan for conducting research, and it incorporates the junction of philosophy, investigational strategies, and particular procedures [30]. The research, therefore, adopted a case study approach based on a mixed-methods approach, including qualitative and quantitative research methods. A case study approach is research directed towards comprehending the peculiarity of a certain issue in its totality or complexity, such as water scarcity and climate change in the study area [31]. This approach was adopted to obtain an in-depth understanding of the issue being studied. The mixed-methods approach was employed to ensure thorough and comprehensive research [30]. The primary reason for employing a mixed-methods approach was to create understanding and reliability and enhance the study’s findings [32]. This strategy was also chosen to enable the complementary use of strengths from both quantitative and qualitative approaches, thereby creating a comprehensive understanding of the research problem [32].

2.3. Target Population

The key targeted informants included the general managers, water supply managers, water engineers, and water board members. Other key informants included religious leaders, principals, and non-governmental organizations. The other targeted respondents were local communities. These stakeholders were critical as they provided information on their perceptions of climate change adaptation policy and governance strategies in the local municipalities. They also provided information on their past experiences of the climate and the indigenous knowledge they employ to attain water security.

2.4. Selection of Study Sites and Sampling

Table 1. Areas affected by water scarcity in Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities.

Local Municipality	Areas Affected	Number of Villages
Raymond Mhlaba	Ward 21 Tyoks Village and Red location Village	2 Villages (9000) People
Ngqushwa	Thyefu Water Supply Scheme Ward 7, Mankone, Bongweni, Hlosini, Makhahlane, Ntsinekana, Bhinqana, Qeto, and Maqosha village	8 Villages (6500) people

Source: [24].

shows areas affected by water scarcity in the villages located in Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities. The purposive sampling method [33], was used to select local municipalities affected by water scarcity, namely Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa. This sampling technique is critical in identifying individuals, organizations, or groups with the knowledge and competencies required for water resource management practices, thus providing the information needed to fulfill the study’s objectives [33]. Purposive sampling was used to select Ward 21 and Ward 7 and villages facing acute water challenges in Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities, respectively. Systematic simple random sampling was then employed to select respondents from the local villages affected by water challenges in the municipalities.

The researcher employed Yamane’s formulae [34], in calculating the sample size of the target population.

The formulae are as follows:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{N}{1+N{\left(E\right)}^2}}$$

where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and E is the margin error, which is 0.05. Therefore, the sample size was determined based on the number of people living in villages having acute water challenges and which are affected by droughts in Ngqushwa and Raymond Mhlaba [24].

This means that the total number of people affected is 6500 + 9000 = 15,500 people.

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{15500}{1+15500{ \left(0.05\right)}^2}}=299.985~300 \text{participants}$$

Thus, to obtain a 95% confidence level with a 5% margin of error, the minimum acceptable number of people surveyed from the drought affected areas was 300.

2.5. Data Collection Techniques

The data for this study were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The use of the combination of the two sources helped to boost the reliability of the findings and improve the quality of the data. Primary data were selected because of their dependability, originality, and independence despite being costly and time-consuming. Secondary data were used to review the existing materials relevant to this investigation. Because of their affordability and accessibility, secondary data were selected because they help save time and scarce resources [35].

2.5.1. Survey Instrument

A survey was conducted to investigate stakeholders’ perceptions on the formulation process of climate change adaptation policy and governance in the water sector. A questionnaire-based sample survey was conducted in Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa municipalities. A total of 300 structured paper-based questionnaires were administered. The study obtained informed consent from all participants before data collection and maintained the confidentiality and anonymity of participants throughout. The respondents were provided with detailed information about the study and their voluntary participation was sought through consent forms. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with the respondents to facilitate effective communication and understanding. A research team comprising five research assistants was formed to conduct the survey effectively. This team worked collaboratively to ensure the smooth execution of the survey and address any queries or concerns raised by the respondents.

2.5.2. Questionnaire Design

The questions included in the questionnaire were developed based on the critical research questions to be answered by the study. They were divided into two sections: S1 and S2. Section S1 focused on gathering demographic data such as gender, age, occupation, and household size. Section S2 delved into investigating stakeholders’ perceptions of the formulation process and approaches to climate change adaptation policies and governance. The semi-structured questionnaires were helpful, as they helped to investigate the respondents’ perceptions of policy formulation and approaches to climate change adaptation policy and governance.

2.5.3. Key Informant Interviews

Face-to-face interviews were conducted with key informants, including water supply managers, water engineers, water board members, non-governmental organizations, religious leaders, health experts, and school principals. Fifteen key informants were interviewed, thereby enabling information saturation. A total of 12 interviews are needed to reach information saturation in a homogeneous study [36]. s Interviews with the key informants were scheduled prior to the survey. Interview notes comprising primary data collected during the surveys were captured immediately during and after each interview. The key informant interviews were compelling as they revealed perceptions of the municipality’s governance approaches to water resource management. They also provided detailed information on the steps and procedures employed in climate change adaptation policy formulation. The use of key informant interviews allowed for the participation of a wide range of people with personal knowledge [36].

2.5.4. Documentary Review

Document analysis is a kind of qualitative research that enables the researcher to understand materials and provide an expression and interpretation of the subject of the study [35] Policy documents and published articles were among the documents used in this study. This provided the types of stakeholders that the municipality engages in climate change adaptation, and the challenges faced by the municipality in formulating climate change adaptation policies in water resource management. Secondary data was also used, which essentially included a literature review. This was critical in substantiating and comparing the research findings.

2.6. Data Collection Procedure

The data were collected from key informants and local communities in Ngqushwa and Raymond Mhlaba local municipalities with the use of interviews and questionnaire-based surveys. A purposive sampling method was employed to select 2 wards that faced acute water challenges from Ngqushwa and Raymond Mhlaba local municipalities; these were Ward 7 and Ward 21, respectively. Systematic simple random sampling was then used to select villages facing acute water challenges. The key informants’ interviews were conducted after the completion of questionnaire-based surveys to validate data collected on the ground.

2.7. Data Analysis

Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, means, and percentages, were computed to provide an overview of the data. Policy document analysis technique was also used in the investigation of the water policy. This was also complemented with interviews from key informants, as they disclosed the water/climate actions in place and the challenges associated with the implementation of the policy. Data derived from questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as percentage and frequency.

The qualitative data from the interviews and the literature content were analyzed using the thematic analysis technique. Thematic analysis refers to qualitative data analysis that entails searching across a data set to identify, analyze, and report repeated patterns [37]. This analysis technique was used to categorize data into themes for interpretation and discussion. Data were displayed using pie charts, graphs, and tables. The primary data were triangulated with secondary data, which primarily involved a literature review.

3. Results

3.1. Demography and the Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Respondents

Table 2. Demography and socioeconomic characteristics of respondents.

Variable	Category	Frequency	Percentage %
Gender	Men	110	36
	Women	190	64
Age group	18–30	99	33
	31–45	87	29
	46–60	75	25
	>60	39	13
Education level	No formal education	9	3
	Primary	174	58
	Secondary	105	35
	Tertiary	12	4
Occupation	Employed	24	8
	Self-employed	27	9
	Unemployed	249	83
Household size	1–5	246	82
	6–10	51	17
	>10	3	1

depicts the demography and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. As shown in the table, there is a significant gender disparity, as women constitute 64% of the respondents compared to men who constitute only 36%. The population with the highest percentage is active young people (18–30) which constitutes 33%, and this increases their vulnerability and exposure to climate-change-related water scarcity. This is followed by the 31–45 age group, which constitutes 29% and is followed by the 46–60 age group, constituting only 25%. The age category with the lowest percentage is the retired/old age (60 years and older) age category, with only 13%.

Additionally, most of the respondents (58%) had low levels of education, i.e., they were educated at the primary level. This was followed by respondents with a secondary education, constituting 35%, followed by tertiary education, with only 4%. The lowest percentage for the level of education was of the group that had received ‘no formal education’, with only 3%. Regarding employment status, most of the respondents were also unemployed, constituting 83%, which depicts their significant vulnerability to water scarcity due to their high poverty levels. This is compared to the 8% of respondents who are employed and only 9% who are self-employed.

The research findings revealed that there are severe gender disparities in the study area; that is, there are more women than men. This means that women are disproportionately affected by water scarcity. Additionally, socioeconomic characteristics, such as education, employment status, and income levels, are inextricably connected to water scarcity in the study area. Thus, the findings confirmed that low levels of education, unemployment, and low levels of income increase respondents’ vulnerability to water scarcity. Hence, most of these households depend on unsafe and unclean water because of their inability to find alternative sources, such as purchasing water tanks and buying water, due to their low adaptive capacity to climate change. Additionally, insufficient dams in the study area compound the respondents’ vulnerability. This was validated by the face-to-face interviews with the key informants as they divulged that there are insufficient dams, implying inadequate water storage capacity, causing water scarcity to persist, especially during drought periods in the study area.

Additionally, the interviews with key informants unpacked that ADM conducted ground investigations, and that several boreholes have been drilled; however, some of the boreholes have dried up due to recurring droughts and limited underground water. This has led to persistent water scarcity in the study area. Therefore, this increases respondents’ vulnerability to water scarcity in the study area, especially in the most vulnerable groups such as women and girls.

3.2. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Governance

The researcher investigated different stakeholder perceptions on the formulation process and approaches to climate change adaptation policy and governance to have a clear insight into governance adaptation approaches to climate change regarding water resource management and its effectiveness in water sustainability.

3.2.1. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Engagement in Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

The responses to engagement meetings regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation were separated into two categories, i.e., ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, so that the respondents could indicate whether there are any meetings in relation to policy formulation or not. Most of the respondents (66%) confirmed there were no engagement meetings regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation. This was compared to the 34% of respondents who confirmed that there were some engagement meetings conducted by ADM regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation.

However, most of the respondents who indicated that there were meetings divulged that most of these meetings were ‘ad-hoc’ in nature, implying that these meetings are usually conducted after the occurrence of droughts. Therefore, it is crucial to note that meetings are rarely conducted before the occurrence of drought disasters; instead, there are emergency meetings which are conducted to temporarily provide water during drought periods. This indicates a lack of long-term planning for climate-change-related disasters in the study area. One of the municipality’s key informants validated this in the statement quoted below.

As a municipality, we do not have a structured way of engaging the local communities on climate change and water resources management. Therefore, most of the meetings conducted with the community are in a reactive manner, after the occurrence of drought disasters and this indicates lack of long-term planning and inadequate climate change adaptation strategies in place, Interviewee 2, July 2023.

However, 14% of the respondents who indicated that there were meetings had a burning concern that in these meetings, their views and knowledge regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation were not consulted. They indicated that they were mostly advised on the strategies that need to be adopted to curb water scarcity challenges in their communities.

3.2.2. Stakeholders’ Satisfaction with the Engagement Meetings for Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

The stakeholders’ responses were ranked according to their level of satisfaction with the engagement meetings. The categories were as follows: ‘fully satisfied’, ‘partially satisfied’, and ‘unsatisfied’. Of the respondents surveyed, 70% were not content and were despondent with the engagement meetings for climate change adaptation policy formulation to address water shortages, compared to 10% of the exclusively satisfied respondents. Additionally, 20% of the respondents were partially satisfied with the engagement meetings for the policy formulation. Therefore, based on the dissatisfaction of various stakeholders, this implies that there is significant poor stakeholder engagement in climate change adaptation in the study area.

3.2.3. Reasons for Dissatisfaction with the Engagement Meetings for Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

Based on the respondents’ perspectives of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, this study also investigated the variables that informed their choices. Most of the respondents (70%) were dissatisfied with the meetings regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation in addressing water scarcity challenges for various reasons. Of these respondents, 45% of them raised concerns regarding poor stakeholder consultation and poor communication from the side of the municipality. Poor stakeholder consultation emerged as the most significant reason for the lack of satisfaction of the respondents. The respondents strongly emphasized that the municipality is not transparent about the engagement meetings for the formulation of climate change adaptation policy. Hence, most respondents were not aware of these meetings.

Additionally, 35% of the respondents revealed that these meetings were conducted reactively, in the sense that they organized meetings in an emergency mode after the occurrence of drought disasters. Also, 20% of the respondents indicated that these engagement meetings were not inclusive. The respondents also confirmed that there is a lack of engagement of various stakeholders such as NGOs, traditional leaders, and the local communities regarding the climate change adaptation policy formulation process in water resource management. Additionally, the respondents added that despite these meetings being conducted, the water policy formulation strategies were not fully implemented, and hence, they were not successful at addressing water challenges.

3.2.4. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Involvement in Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

We investigated the stakeholders’ perceptions of whether they were involved in formulating climate change adaptation policy in water resource management. The responses were categorized into ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. Most of the respondents (66%) indicated that they felt uninvolved in climate change adaptation policy formulation, as compared to 34% of the respondents who indicated that they felt involved. Thus, most stakeholders indicated that they were ‘locked out’ from divulging their decisions concerning climate change adaptation policy formulation and implementation in water resource management.

This is validated by one of the respondents, who made the following statement:

The municipality rarely communicates with the community and there are relatively no meetings, or any form of engagement conducted to tackle water-related challenges in our area. The municipality does not fully play its role in engaging us as the community on water management and water service delivery Respondent 4, Questionnaire-based survey, July 2023.

Therefore, this reflects that the involvement of the community is less prioritized by the municipality and is not involved in decision making regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation in water resource management. NGOs such as the Gift of the Givers confirmed that the municipality does not integrate them in policy and decision making regarding water resource management. According to the Gift of Givers, stakeholders operate in a fragmented way, as there is a dissonance between communities, NGOs, and the municipality. This is validated by an official from Gift of The Givers below, who made the following statement:

The climate change adaptation policy formulation in water resources management is crippled by poor stakeholder engagement. The municipality does not engage and integrate us as private organizations into decision-making on climate change adaptation. Hence, we usually assist communities with water tanks without any communication or engagement with the municipality, Interviewee 12, July 2023.

3.2.5. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Influence on Decision Making Regarding Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

The perceptions of the various stakeholders and their influence on climate change adaptation policy formulation in water resources management were investigated. Therefore, the respondents were asked to indicate and rank their perceptions of the most influential to the least influential stakeholders in climate change adaptation policy formulation.

Most of the respondents (75%) indicated that the most influential stakeholder in climate change adaptation policy formulation and approaches to climate change adaptation is the Amathole District Municipality (ADM), compared to the 12% of respondents who indicated that the community leaders have the most influence on climate change adaptation policy formulation. Only 8% of the respondents reported that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are the most influential when it comes to climate change adaptation and water policy formulation. The community members were reported to be the least influential, as they were only reported by 5% of the respondents. The findingssrevealed that the local communities do not have a voice on the climate change adaptation policy formulation process in water resource management. Thus, the findings revealed that ADM is most influential when it comes to climate change adaptation policy formulation, given that they have power and authority over the local communities.

3.3. The Roles of Various Stakeholders in Climate Change Adaptation Governance in Water Resource Management

We investigated the roles of various stakeholders in climate change adaptation governance and policy in water resource management. The respondents interviewed included the municipality (ADM), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Gift of the Givers), school principals, health staff, and the local communities.

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Roles in Climate Change Adaptation Policy

We investigated the various stakeholder roles in climate change adaptation policy formulation. The various stakeholders divulged different views and perspectives regarding their roles;

Table 3. Stakeholders’ perceptions of their roles in climate change adaptation policy.

Type of Stakeholder	Roles in Climate Change Adaptation Policy Actions
Amathole District Municipality (ADM)	Water service provider (WSP) for all of the local municipalities Drilling boreholes and refurbishing water infrastructure, i.e., pipes, water metres, etc. Improving water storage systems, i.e., purchasing water tanks to curb water scarcity challenges Implementing rain water harvesting systems Developing climate change response plans to foster water sustainability; e.g., water service master plan (WSMP) Stakeholder engagement in climate change adaptation Developing early warning systems to increase resilience to climate change
NGOs, i.e., Gift of the Givers	Engagement with the local communities regarding climate change adaptation Drilling boreholes and improving water accessibility Providing water tanks to the local communities for water harvesting purposes
Community members	Coordinating with private organizations on climate change and water management projects Adopting rainwater harvesting at the household level Water reuse and water rationing Advising NGOs and/or the municipality on areas to put water tanks/water sources
Religious Leaders i.e., Pastors	Communicating with the municipality about water challenges they are encountering Coordinating with NGOs on climate change adaptation strategies Purchasing water tanks to store more water
School Principals and teachers	Advising the municipality and/or NGOs on areas affected by water scarcity Communicating with the community leaders about climate change challenges Rainwater harvesting
Health staff	Coordinating with private organisations and/or the municipality on water challenges Engagng with the community leaders about water scarcity challenges

shows stakeholders’ perceptions of their roles in climate change adaptation policy in water resource management.

The findings revealed that the roles of ADM were to develop climate change response plans in relation to water sustainability as well as to implement climate change adaptation strategies. For instance, the development of the water service master plan (WSMP), which is guided by national policy. These include the procurement of water tankers to provide water to the communities affected by droughts, wastewater reuse, the desalinization of seawater to improve water access and availability to the communities, and water harvesting, among others.

Furthermore, the findings revealed that the ADM acts as a water service provider for all six of the local municipalities under it, including the Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa local municipalities. However, the findings picked that these plans are not fully implemented due to financial challenges. Most municipalities lack financial capacity, thereby compromising their ability to effectively implement climate change adaptation policies in South Africa [38]. Additionally, the findings unpacked that the roles of ADM were to engage various stakeholders on climate change adaptation. These stakeholders include the department of disaster management, ward councilors, government departments, the Department of Water and Sanitation, and various other sectors, including agriculture and energy. However, the findings revealed that the local community members and local-level institutions were not mentioned/were excluded from decision making regarding the water policy formulation process and climate change adaptation strategies [15]. Additionally, the research findings unveiled that there is a lack of social infrastructural approaches to climate change adaptation and water resource management on both sides of the study area. For instance, the findings revealed that there are no community-based adaptation measures devised by the community, hence the absence of water user associations (WUAs) in the study area. This also underscores the uncertainty of most respondents in the study area regarding their roles in adaptation of climate change.

However, at the community level, the majority of the respondents (70%) were not totally certain about their roles in climate change adaptation policy formulation. This is compared to the 30% of respondents who were able to partially articulate their roles. These respondents indicated that their roles were to influence the municipalities regarding strategies to be adopted to foster water sustainability, coordinating with NGOs on water management projects, advising NGOs on areas to put water tanks/water sources, and adopting water reuse and water harvesting strategies at household level. However, out of all 30% of the respondents, most of them were not certain about their roles in the climate change adaptation policy formulation process in water resource management

Other respondents, including religious leaders (pastors), school principals, health staff, and non-governmental organizations (Gift of the Givers), could also partially articulate their roles in climate change adaptation. However, they were also not certain about their roles, particularly regarding the climate change adaptation policy formulation process. This implies that the municipality does not engage such stakeholders in climate change adaptation policy formulation regarding water resource management.

4. Discussion

4.1. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Engagement and Involvement in Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

The study’s findings emphasize that the stakeholders’ views are not consulted when it comes to CCA policy formulation, ultimately compromising effective climate change adaptation in the study area, as discussed by [39]. These findings align with previous studies, which indicated that climate change adaptation policy design in South Africa is challenged by a lack of inclusive, integrative, and coherent policy design [6]. This remains an outstanding challenge because of its fragmented nature. Therefore, this prevents the integration of indigenous knowledge systems into the climate change adaptation policy formulation process in water resource management [3]. Therefore, the lack of collaborative water governance in the study area prevented robust strategies, such as community-based water resource management, causing water scarcity challenges to escalate [15,38]. It is critical to note that there is a top-down governance approach in water resource management in the study area, which prevents the participation of local communities in the climate change adaptation policy formulation process. Hence, this inhibits the government to effectively address water scarcity challenges due to a lack of centralized-decision-making regarding water resource management [12,40,41].

This is also in line with the findings of this study, as a significant lack of stakeholder consultation inhibits various stakeholders from divulging their views and concerns regarding climate change adaptation policy formulation. Therefore, this indicates that ADM is e not inclusive when it comes to climate change adaptation policy formulation, as various stakeholders are locked out of decision making. Most stakeholders, such as the local communities, are significantly affected by climate-change-related water scarcity, as they are excluded from climate change adaptation policy formulation in South Africa [19]. This also underscores the idea that public participation programs are absent due to ineffective water policies that prevent local communities from meaningful engagement [26]. Most stakeholders in the study area rarely participate, which reflects the fact that they are not consulted before the formulation of these policies and that communities are not adequately involved in their implementation [10].

Poor stakeholder involvement is heightened by a lack of accountability and clear goals in relation to climate change policy in the long term in South Africa [6,16,42]. This compromises the effective participation of various stakeholders in formulating and implementing climate change adaptation policies. This is because there are significant information and knowledge gaps regarding CCA, ultimately affecting local communities’ participation, especially the poor and the vulnerable [38]. This also heightens vulnerability to climate change in the study area due to the elusive integrated approach to water resource management. Therefore, this emphasizes the need for municipalities to integrate local communities in decision making when it comes to water policy making to inform resilient water governance amid climate change disasters [1]. Moreover, effective stakeholder involvement in South African municipalities, including in the study area, is compromised by political leaders’ resistance to relinquishing power to other stakeholders and the absence of a legal framework to embed stakeholder engagement in the country’s institutional practices [43]. These setbacks restrict the principles of inclusive decision making and policy implementation in concrete programs and policy making. Additionally, there are challenges where the engagement process is not questioned per se but is disrupted by interruptive processes, logistics, or conflicting goals [1]. Stakeholder participation in the climate change adaptation policy formulation process has also been hindered by the absence of public participation programs, causing ineffective climate change adaptation policies [26]. This prevents civil society and communities from engaging meaningfully. This is exacerbated by the absence of a practical appraisal of the effectiveness of stakeholder engagement in addressing the desired goals of water governance [26].

4.2. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Influence on Decision Making in Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

It is critical to note that there is poor community empowerment in climate change adaptation; hence, there are no water user associations (WUAs) in the study area, despite their significance in the climate change governance framework in South Africa [22]. This implies that insufficient empowerment and capacity building, especially among grassroots organizations, hinders stakeholders’ participation in climate change policy formulation [44]. The study’s findings revealed that the ADM has more power and influence in decision making on policy formulation in climate change adaptation [38]. The local communities have limited power to influence change in policy formulation, as the water governance system is bureaucratic and lacks a collaborative approach [38]. This, therefore, underscores the need to strike a balance of power in decision making by embracing a participatory approach to climate change adaptation in the study area [26]. This is because power is a critical determinant of the success of climate change adaptation [45]. Furthermore, there is a lack of practical appraisal of the effectiveness of stakeholder engagement in addressing the desired goals of water governance [26,41]. Most assessments conducted on stakeholder engagement have failed to provide policymakers with critical information and expertise and advise future engagement programs [46]. Thus, they cannot avoid oversimplifying beyond the context of specific case studies [46]. In most instances, participation initiatives do not meet the expectations of the local communities or are just rhetorical regarding existing gaps [47]. Thus, most stakeholders, especially the local communities, are the most vulnerable as they are less empowered and deprived of the platform to influence decision making in climate change adaptation.

4.3. Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Their Roles in Climate Change Adaptation Policy Formulation

The study’s findings revealed that various stakeholders were not certain of their roles in climate change adaptation in the study area [13]. This signifies poor stakeholder involvement and a lack of clarity regarding stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities in policy design and implementation in climate change adaptation [26]. Thus, a lack of clarity regarding responsibilities is one of the most urgent causes of inefficient action to address complex and integrative climate governance in the water sector in South Africa [21]. Key water players and institutions at different levels have unclear duties and responsibilities, which leads to a lack of coordination and disputes at both the horizontal and vertical levels [12]. The climate change governance system in South Africa is defined by a lack of clarity regarding stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities in climate change policy design and implementation [6]. It is often unclear who takes on which roles and responsibilities of key water actors and institutions at various levels, thus resulting in coordination deficits and conflicts, both horizontally and vertically [12]. Additionally, lack of clarity on the definition, objectives, and responsibilities of stakeholders hinders effective and centralized decision making and participation in climate change adaptation [46]. Furthermore, the lack of empowerment of grassroots organizations severely constrains the clarity of their roles and responsibilities in climate change adaptation policy formulation in the study area [41,44].

5. Conclusions

Despite the frequency of droughts and the significant effects of climate-change-induced water scarcity in the study area, responses to climate change disasters in South African municipalities including Raymond Mhlaba and Ngqushwa remain reactive rather than proactive. This reflects insufficient climate change adaptation and a lack of institutional preparedness regarding climate change disasters, thereby escalating water scarcity challenges. This also demonstrates that there is inadequate long-term planning for climate change adaptation, compounding vulnerability to climate change. The situation is challenged by economic deterioration, demographic growth, and escalating water demands that heighten the incapacitation of the municipalities to foster effective climate change adaptation in water resource management. Thus, the crisis is further jeopardized by the weak government system that is incompetent to lead and implement climate change adaptation policies effectively. Additionally, this is because critical players and actors are excluded in policy making and implementation, and this compromises implementation actions, as there is a lack of clarity, particularly in terms of who frames the knowledge frontier, who is included in policy and decision making, and who is accountable for climate change adaptation.

While the effects of recurring drought aggravate water scarcity in the study area, it is also imperative to underscore that water governance failures also compound water scarcity. Water scarcity is also infrastructure-related, which causes severe water loss and compromises water access and availability to many, escalating water challenges. Additionally, complex governance structures compromise effective climate change adaptation planning in the local municipalities, as the top-down climate change governance system compromises centralized decision making in water resource management. Thus, this compromises multifaceted and integrative climate change governance in the water sector in the study area. Furthermore, the dissonance between climate change adaptation policy and action on the ground in the study area exacerbates water scarcity. Elusive climate change adaptation policy inclusiveness and transparency, along with poor policy formulation, complicate effective climate change adaptation in water resource management in the study area. Therefore, this calls for the local municipalities to adopt a resilient and proper climate change governance system, given the escalating scarcity challenges.