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Review

A Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization of the Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution Control

by
Qijie Geng
1,
Changkun Lin
2,
Shan Li
2,* and
Fei Guo
2
1
College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712100, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(14), 2056; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142056
Submission received: 16 June 2025 / Revised: 5 July 2025 / Accepted: 8 July 2025 / Published: 9 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Point Source Pollution and Water Resource Protection)
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Abstract

Non-point source (NPS) pollution continues to pose threats to ecosystems and NPS pollution control represents a significant global challenge. This study presents a bibliometric analysis of 1328 studies on the assessment of NPS pollution control, collected from the Web of Science (WOS) Core Collection database for the period between January 1993 and April 2025. The analysis encompassed multiple dimensions, including annual publication volume, most prolific authors and journals, top funding organizations, and keyword co-occurrence. Results reveal a consistently accelerating publication trend, with China and the United States emerging as the most prominent contributors. The findings highlight a distinct evolution in research focus—from early efforts centered on pollutant source tracing and model-based simulations of best management practices (BMPs), such as SWAT and AnnAGNPS, to more holistic, multidimensional assessments that integrate economic, environmental, ecological, and social dimensions to support multi-objective optimization. Future directions are expected to emphasize non-structural measures and promote the development of globally standardized evaluation frameworks for NPS control strategies, thereby enhancing cross-regional comparability and aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs).

1. Introduction

Non-point source (NPS) pollution, also known as diffused pollution, refers to a form of pollution in which the exact sources and magnitudes of emissions cannot be directly observed or accurately quantified [1]. Characterized by its spatial variability, extensive distribution, and complex mechanisms, NPS pollution presents significant challenges for source identification and effective management [2]. It is widely recognized by the academic community that the long-term impacts of NPS pollution on ecosystem services and human health are globally significant and cannot be ignored [3]. For instance, the 2009 National Water Quality Inventory by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) indicated that five of the six leading causes of waterbody impairment in the United States were attributed to NPS pollutants, underscoring its urgent importance. A study by Candela et al. evaluated NPS pollution in the Nocella catchment in Sicily, Italy, finding that nutrient loads from NPSs significantly affected the receiving water body [4]. Similarly, Coetser et al. documented severe water quality degradation caused by mining-related NPS pollution, as demonstrated by acidification and metal loading in South Africa [5]. In Europe, NPS pollution from agricultural landscapes remained a primary contributor to water quality deterioration, largely due to excess nitrogen and phosphorus input [6]. Given the severity of NPS pollution worldwide, substantial time and resources have been devoted to addressing NPS pollution issues in both agricultural and urban watersheds [7]. In summary, despite decades of research and billions of dollars invested globally in technological and policy interventions, NPS pollution continues to pose a major threat to freshwater ecosystems [8]. Assessing its potential ecological and environmental consequences and developing effective mitigation strategies remain pressing global challenges [9].
Given the severity of NPS pollution worldwide, its control and management play a crucial yet content-dependent role within environmental treatment systems [7]. Primary treatment approaches include source tracking, source reduction strategies, modeling, and environmental engineering interventions. Source tracking studies have revealed that NPS pollutants typically enter environment media such as water, soil, and the air through surface runoff, soil erosion and infiltration, agricultural and livestock wastewater discharge [10], although environmental factors—such as topography, precipitation, and soil properties—further complicate the generation and transport of NPS pollutants [11]. Agricultural non-point source (ANPS) pollution, in particular, has emerged as a major contributor [12], largely due to the intensification of farming practices associated with modernization [13]. As a frontline strategy for source reduction, the “4R” approach—applying nutrients at the right rate, right time, right source, and right placement—serves as a foundational framework for minimizing pollutant loads [14]. In addition, modeling has greatly promoted the development of NPS pollution treatment technologies. Best management practices (BMPs) aid in management and monitoring [15]; principal component analysis (PCA) helps identify key variables characterizing diffuse pollution across environmental media [16]; chemical mass balance (CMB) analysis and the watershed model of pollution load (PLOAD) quantify pollutants such as chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and total dissolved solids (TDSs) in water bodies [17]; the variable-source area (VSA) concept helps delineate regions where potential pollutant loading coincides with runoff generation [18]; and the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SAWT) estimates the temporal and spatial dynamics of phosphorus and nitrogen [19]. Moreover, engineering and agricultural practices such as reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT) methods [20], ecological ditches [21], and riverine-constructed wetland systems (RCWSs) [22] have proven effective in field applications to varying degrees. Despite these efforts, NPS pollution remains a persistent and complex global issue [23]. In conclusion, substantial gaps remain in the implementation, motivation, and interdisciplinary advancement of NPS control strategies. Continued attention and long-term investment are essential for developing effective, integrative approaches to NPS pollution mitigation.
Given the urgent need for NPS pollution control, selecting region-specific measures that align with both the characteristics of NPS pollution and local geophysical conditions is critical to the success of mitigation efforts. This necessitates comprehensive evaluations that integrate environmental impacts, economic costs, and ecological benefits. Among the most widely adopted methodologies for such assessments are cost–benefit analysis (CBA), life cycle costing (LCC), life cycle assessment (LCA), etc. CBA is a commonly utilized decision-support tool that evaluates economic trade-offs by comparing the benefits of a policy against its implementation costs [24]. As a systematic and rational method, CBA has been widely applied in the environmental sector for environmental risk assessment and policy documentation since the 1970s [25]. LCA, in contrast, is a comprehensive environmental flow accounting approach used to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of a product or service throughout its life cycle [26]. LCC, one the other hand, measures economic performance across the life cycle and can be combined with LCA to identify environmental–economic trade-offs [27]. The treatment of NPS pollution is associated with substantial environmental co-benefits. However, the evaluation of NPS control strategies—and the application of tools such as CBA, LCA, and LCC—remains at a relatively early stage of development.
Bibliometrics is a field that examines the structure, behavior, and evolution of scholarly communication systems. By utilizing mathematical and statistical techniques, bibliometric analysis quantitatively evaluates the literature, tracing the developmental trajectory of a specific field from a macro perspective, identifying research hotspots, and exploring emerging frontiers. These insights provide valuable guidance for future research directions [28]. As technological advancements and interdisciplinary integration continue, bibliometric methodologies are expected to improve further, offering increasingly robust support for scientific research [29].
Bibliometric analysis techniques include cluster analysis (classification analysis), principal component analysis and factor analysis (correlation study), regression analysis (outlier identification), co-occurrence analysis and co-citation analysis (multiple correlation analysis), and time series analysis (the evolution of keywords in combination with the time dimension) [30]. Due to the breadth of available data, analytical tools such as VOSviewer and CiteSpace are widely used to generate co-occurrence networks and provide corresponding visualization maps, thereby enhancing both the comprehensiveness and accuracy of analysis [31].
Several review articles have summarized the evaluation of control measures for agricultural NPS pollution, primarily focusing on the environmental effectiveness of structural and non-structural practices [32]. Moreover, some works offered in-depth reviews on specific measures; for instance, buffer zones were comprehensively examined in terms of pollutant removal efficiencies, with key influencing factors identified such as buffer width, vegetation type, slope, seasonal variation, soil characteristics, and vegetation density [33].
In the realm of bibliometric analysis, Jyotish et al. conducted a thorough bibliometric review of NPS pollution source identification research from 1991 to 2023, offering valuable insights into the development and research hotspots in source-tracing methodologies [34]. However, bibliometric reviews that specifically target the assessment of NPS control measures remain scarce. The integration of bibliometric approaches with systematic assessments of control strategies is still in its early stages and represents a significant research gap.
The primary objective of this review was to employ bibliometric analysis to retrieve and examine the published literature about the assessment of NPS pollution control, using data from the Web of Science (WOS) Core Collection database. By analyzing co-authorship networks, keyword co-occurrence, and publication trends, and by applying bibliometric visualization tools, this study aimed to establish a comprehensive overview of the development of NPS pollution control, thereby identifying the field’s core academic contributors and emerging research frontiers. In addition, through a detailed analysis of the prominent methodologies identified via keyword analysis, this paper provides a critical review of their current applications and effectiveness, highlighting areas for improvement and offering a foundation for subsequent research. The references included herein may serve as useful sources for in-depth investigation into NPS pollution control and its assessment, and they point to potential directions for future research in this field.

2. Data and Methods

2.1. Data Sources

The literature for this study was collected and screened from Clarivate’s Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database. The search keywords used were TS = ((non-point source pollution OR diffuse pollution OR diffused pollution) AND (control OR treat* OR dispos* OR processing OR removal OR decontamination OR remediation OR purification OR reduction OR restoration) AND (“cost–benefit analysis” OR CBA OR “cost-effectiveness analysis” OR cost-efficiency OR economic efficiency OR eco-efficiency OR benefit–cost ratio OR net present value OR internal rate of return OR return on investment OR “life cycle costing” OR LCC OR “life cycle assessment” OR LCA OR life cycle impact assessment OR sustainability assessment OR nutrient management OR “best management practices” OR watershed management)). The selected period ranged from January 1993 to April 2025. The document type was refined to “ARTICLE” and the language was refined to “English” to reasonable exclude only five non-English publications with low citation levels. After removing the duplicate literature, 1328 effective articles were collected.

2.2. Research Methods

The collected articles were downloaded in the “Full Record and Cited References” format, and the plain text files were imported into the Scimago Graphica (version 2024), VOSviewer (v. 1.6.20), and CiteSpace (v. 6.2.R6(64-bit) Advanced) for bibliometric analysis and visualization. These bibliometric software tools facilitate the construction of visualized networks and scientific density maps through co-citation analysis, burst detection, collaboration network analysis, and temporal overlay mapping [35].
This study employed the three aforementioned tools to analyze 1328 retrieved articles across several dimensions, including authorship, publication countries, affiliated institutions, and keyword distributions. During the data processing phase, flexible adjustments were made to remove duplicate, irrelevant, or excessively large nodes. As a result, the number of nodes in the visualizations was controlled between 40 and 100 to ensure the interpretability of graphs such as clustering maps. Subsequently, major research directions were examined, and emerging trends and future research trajectories were identified and discussed.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Annual Trends in the Number of Publications

According to Figure 1, which excludes the 32 articles published in the incomplete year of 2025, a total of 1296 articles related to NPS pollution control were published over the 31-year period from 1993 to 2024. The annual number of publications showed a generally increasing trend, divided into three distinct phases: (1) In the first stage (1993–2001), research on NPS pollution control was in its early exploratory phase, with an average of nine publications per year. In seven out of these nine years, the annual number of publications was lower than 15. Although the overall trend was upward, it exhibited minor fluctuations. During this period, research primarily focused on managing NPS pollution in aquatic systems, including watershed and river basin management, surface runoff, and the roles of phosphorus and nitrogen in eutrophication [36]. Riparian vegetated buffer strips emerged as a frequently studied mitigation measure during this stage [37]. These early control strategies emphasized water quality monitoring and NPS pollution mitigation, characterized by a problem-oriented and theory-driven approach. Ref. (2) saw a significant increase in publication output, with an average of 35 articles per year—substantially higher than in stage one. During this period, the overall publication trend continued to rise but followed a wavelike pattern, typically fluctuating over three-year intervals. In addition, researchers began to place greater emphasis on modeling methodologies for NPS pollution control [38], with SWAT and GIS emerging as the most frequently discussed and widely applied tools [39]. The third (3) stage (2014–2024) exhibited a markedly accelerated growth trend, with an average of 73 publications per year, accounting for 61.7% of the total output. The sharp rise in publication volume after 2014 can be partially attributed to a convergence of policy initiatives (e.g., early development of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals [40], the EU Water Framework Directive milestones [41], and China’s national programs “Water Ten Plan” [42]). Although a slight wave-like pattern persisted during this stage, the annual number of publications increased sharply compared to stages one and two. In addition, NPS pollution control became increasingly integrated with emerging environmental themes such as climate change, urbanization, land use change, and multi-objective optimization. Methodologies such as cost-efficiency analysis and life cycle assessment (LCA) were also widely applied, reflecting a growing trend toward interdisciplinary integration and procedural advancement [43,44]. Across the three stages, the research focus shifted from theoretical exploration to the evaluation of environmental cost-effectiveness, and from the study of NPS pollution in aquatic systems to the investigation of its transformation across multiple environmental media.

3.2. Contribution of Countries Analysis

The number of publications from individual countries or regions largely reflects their technological strength and innovation capacity. The 1328 selected articles originated from 88 countries. According to the visualization map generated in VOSviewer (Figure 2) and the top five countries in terms of publication volume (Table 1), the top three countries in terms of publication volume were China (497 articles, 37.4%), the United States (322 articles, 24.3%), and the United Kingdom (102 articles, 7.68%). In addition to these top three contributors—each with more than 100 publications—nine other countries had more than 30 publications related to NPS pollution control, most of which were developed countries in North America, Europe, and Oceania. The variation in dot sizes in Figure 2 indicates that developed countries such as the United States and France were earlier contributors to the field, likely due to greater financial support and established research infrastructure. In contrast, although China is a developing country, it has demonstrated a remarkable rise in publication output since around 2020. This surge may be attributed to China’s vigorous promotion of ecological development since 2012, alongside the Ministry of Ecology and Environment’s strict implementation of standards for agricultural practices and surface water management.
In terms of average citations per article, Wales ranked highest, with an average of 77 citations per publication, indicating substantial academic influence. Notably, China had the lowest average citation count among the top five countries by publication volume, with only 23 citations per article—significantly lower than the United States, which averaged 41 citations per article. This suggests that while China has achieved high publication output in the field of NPS pollution control, the academic impact of these articles remains relatively limited, possibly due to a lack of advanced monitoring systems or rigorous quality assurance mechanisms. This can be attributed to China’s relatively late engagement in this research field as a developing country, which has limited the formation of a well-established body of highly cited foundational literature. Additionally, many publications by Chinese authors have only been released in recent years, leaving insufficient time for the accumulation of widespread citation. Developing countries should enhance their academic credibility and influence in the field of NPS pollution control by increasing both the quantity of publications and the depth and rigor of research.
As shown in Figure 3, China and the United States demonstrated the most active international research collaborations, with total link strengths of 156 and 146, respectively, highlighting their extensive global engagement. Countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and numerous European nations also maintained strong academic partnerships worldwide. It can be inferred that countries forming large clusters in Figure 3 are those where national policies promote cultural openness and where urgent needs exist to address NPS pollution—particularly in regions with intensive agricultural or livestock industries. Furthermore, several developing countries, including South Africa, Iran, and Brazil, also displayed prominent nodes on the collaboration map, suggesting a growing trend toward North–South cooperation in NPS pollution control research. All countries and regions are encouraged to fully leverage international collaboration, particularly with scholars and institutions from developed nations.

3.3. Contribution of Institutions Analysis

Academic institutions serve as the foundation of scholarly publication. Both the quantity and quality of publications are critical to an institution’s academic influence. According to the analysis generated by VOSviewer (Figure 4), a total of 1625 institutions contributed to the 1328 selected articles. The colors in Figure 4 indicated clusters of institutions with close collaborative relationships. Among these, a prominent red cluster was associated with institutional groups from China. The top five most productive institutions are listed in Table 2. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) ranked first, with 124 publications—accounting for 9.34% of all selected articles. The remaining four institutions were all leading Chinese universities, reflecting how China has developed a relatively mature institutional system for academic research in the field of NPS pollution control. The large-scale collaboration both within and among these institutions likely contributes to the generation of impactful research outcomes in this area.

3.4. Authors Analysis and Citation Analysis

A total of 5259 scholars contributed as authors to the 1328 selected articles. According to Table 3, Shen Zhenyao from Beijing Normal University was the most prolific author, with 21 publications and a total of 968 citations. His research interests include water quality renewal [45], the estimation of non-point source (NPS) pollution load distributions [46], and the identification of priority management areas for NPS pollution control [47]. Among the authors listed in Table 3, Adrian L. Collins—from North Wyke, United Kingdom—had the highest average number of citations per article. As the only non-Chinese researcher in the top group, Collins achieved an impressive average of 60.44 citations per article, indicating that his distinctive contributions have had a significant impact on the assessment of NPS pollution control. His research has primarily focused on ecological cost-effectiveness, ecotoxicological impacts, and suspended sediment dynamics in aquatic environments related to NPS pollution [48]. His most frequently cited publication, which examined the impacts of fine sediment on riverine fish, has been cited 454 times, reflecting substantial international academic influence [49].
Citation frequency is a key indicator of an article’s academic impact. The most-cited article among the selected works was authored by Shrestha, S., and published in 2007. This presented a case study of the Fuji River Basin in Japan. This article has received an impressive 1249 citations in the WOSCC. The study employed a combination of multivariate statistical techniques—cluster analysis (CA), principal component analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), and discriminant analysis (DA)—to evaluate water quality over an eight-year period. Its high citation count can be attributed to its comprehensive analytical framework and the application of robust statistical methodologies for water quality assessment. This influential work has served as an authoritative reference for subsequent research on NPS pollution control assessments [38].
According to the citation report generated by WOS database, the 1328 articles related to the evaluation of NPS pollution control measures collectively exhibited an h-index of 92. This indicated that at least 92 publications have been cited 92 times or more, reflecting a substantial degree of academic influence. Approximately 7% of the articles fall within this high-impact category, demonstrating seminal and authoritative literature. These findings suggest that the field has developed into a relatively mature research domain with a well-defined core knowledge structure.

3.5. Journal Analysis

According to Table 4, among the 284 screened journals, Science of the Total Environment ranked first in both the number of publications (108 articles) and the average citations per article (47.89), underscoring its leading role in the field of NPS pollution control. Additionally, the journal demonstrated a total link strength of 450, further reinforcing its central influence within the scholarly network.

3.6. Keywords Analysis

3.6.1. Frequency and Co-Occurrence Analysis

Among the 1328 selected articles on the assessment of NPS pollution control, a total of 3625 author keywords were extracted. Using VOSviewer for visualization, duplicate nodes were merged (Table S1). High-frequency nodes such as “Non-Point Source Pollution,” “Water Quality,” “Phosphorus,” and “SWAT” were excluded due to their excessive node size (occurrence >100, Table S2), and “Management” was removed for lacking specific semantic value. Ultimately, 72 keywords with a minimum occurrence of seven times were visualized in the keyword co-occurrence map (Figure 5). Keywords with the same color exhibit a high frequency of co-occurrence. Notably, frequently appearing terms such as “Runoff,” “Watershed,” “Agricultural Non-Point Source,” and “Nitrate” emphasized the strong linkage between NPS pollution control and nutrient-driven water quality degradation in agricultural settings.
A significant number of articles were driven by the goal of developing and refining models to address NPS pollution, alongside the desire to evaluate the environmental impacts and cost-effectiveness of related control strategies. The most frequent keyword was “Best Management Practices” (BMPs), with 123 occurrences and a total link strength of 262, highlighting BMPs’ central role in NPS pollution mitigation and cost–benefit analysis.
Other frequently used modeling tools included “AnnAGNPS,” “GIS,” “SWMM,” and the excluded node “SWAT,” all of which represent widely adopted methodological frameworks in the modeling and management of NPS pollution.
Moreover, keyword co-occurrence analysis was conducted on the 3625 keywords, as shown in Figure 6. The sizes and lines of each node represented its frequency and its co-occurrence in multiple studies, respectively. A total of seven clusters were found in the map: Cluster #0 (Source Apportionment), Cluster #1 (Control Strategies), Cluster #2 (Evaluating Cost-Effective Strategies), Cluster #3 (Surface Water Pollution), Cluster #4 (Critical Area Index), Cluster #5 (Priority Management Area), and Cluster #6 (Quantifying Water Pollution Source). In this clustering map, the modularity and silhouette values were 0.83 and 0.94, respectively, indicating a well-structured visualization and highly convincing clustering results.

3.6.2. Analysis on Development History and Emerging Trends

According to Figure 7, significant advancements have been made in NPS pollution management over the past three decades. The field has evolved from treating NPS pollution as merely an extension of point source pollution to establishing it as an independent research focus with the development of a range of effective methodologies. In recent years, scholars have not only concentrated on treatment strategies for NPS pollution but have also increasingly incorporated cost–benefit analysis into assessments. This approach facilitates the evaluation of NPS control over its entire life cycle, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of its societal, environmental, and economic impacts [50].
Traditional research on NPS pollution control primarily focused on the analysis of pollution-driving factors and pollutant source tracing within specific study areas [51,52]. In this process, models such as PCA [53], SWAT [54], and AnnAGNPS [55] were widely applied. Based on source tracking results, researchers frequently proposed targeted management recommendations. For example, the study of NPS pollution in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region (TGRR) of China implemented economic cost analysis and SWAT to identify the ANPS pollution and its associated environmental quantitative contributions. The results showed that livestock production was the main source of the total nitrogen (TN) load, accounting for 82% of the agricultural TN load. Livestock production and crop cultivation were the main sources of the total phosphorus (TP) load, accounting for 52% and 42%, respectively [12]. In another study conducted in the Wangjiaqiao watershed of the TGRR, China, the percentile method was applied to identify areas with high pollutant contributions (critical source areas, CSAs) by ranking the TN and TP outputs derived from the AnnAGNPS model from high to low. Sub-watersheds within the top 50% of loss areas were designated as CSAs. Specifically, TN-CSAs and TP-CSAs accounted for 5.4% and 3.3%, respectively. The region-specific BMPs were proposed based on CSAs, such as the agricultural area in the western watershed with high TN and TP outputs, and high elevation was recommended to reduce fertilizer application. Additionally, it was recommended that farmers use environmentally friendly fertilizers and implement conservation tillage practices [56].
Notably, some of the studies predicted results for the recommended BMPs. BMPs are the most effective and practicable means of controlling NPS pollution at desired levels. For example, simulated by AnnAGNPS model and following the conversion of cropland into forest, the study of the Jiulong River watershed indicated that TN load would decrease by 96%, and phosphorus load would decrease by 79.2%; after the removal of livestock farms (LFR), nitrogen load and dissolved nitrogen would decrease by 63.54% and 76.92%, respectively [57]. However, this research relied solely on modeling calculation to simulate the NPS pollution reduction; as such, giant limitations existed for theoretical derivation and calculation could not substantiate the reliability of the predicted efficiency of strategies. The estimated pollutant reduction effects after the application of BMPs relied on recorded watershed monitoring data, meteorological data, and land use data [19]. However, the data calibration was often limited and did not perform the rigorous evaluation of the economic costs, environmental benefits, and ecological benefits of BMPs.
With the progressing implementation of BMPs in numerous areas, the question of how to strike a balance between economic cost and treatment efficiency has become an urgent issue for decision-makers to address [58]. Researchers gradually focused more on conducting cost-effectiveness analyses on NPS pollution control BMPs to determine their applicability and effectiveness, eventually establishing the optimal solution. The goal was to minimize costs while maximizing the effects of NPS pollution control and the enhancement of ecosystem services value [59]. In such studies, a comprehensive management evaluation for NPS pollution control BMPs was widely applied. It employed a series of procedures for evaluating the approaches or operations for controlling NPS pollution to achieve the multi-objective optimization of cost-effectiveness, environmental benefits, ecosystem effects, and social benefits. Examples of BMPs evaluation studies were enormous. A case study in Dianchi Lake integrated the Economic-Environmental-Ecological (EEE) model with trade-off analysis to rapidly identify the optimal combination of BMPs. The Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) was applied for six selected BMPs for multi-objective optimization to uncover previously unattained Pareto-optimal solutions. In this study, sensitivity analysis was conducted via the SWAT-CUP tool, and model validation achieved the dual-parameter calibration of streamflow and TP. Ecosystem service value (ESV) was estimated from local land use change data, demonstrating strong transferability and high result precision [60]. Such multi-objective optimization could result in joint analysis of multiple NPS pollution control strategies, carrying incomparable advantages to balance economic inputs, NPS pollutant reduction, and overall ecological benefits.
In multi-objective optimization analysis, the data inputs of BMPs’ economic cost and environmental efficiency were mainly taken from regional financial records and monitoring data, with high uncertainty in spatial environmental parameters (seasonal variations, geological environment, etc.) [61], land use types [62], and engineering uncertainty. Thus, the uncertainty evaluation, data correction, and parameter-sensitive analysis method (SA) were necessary for enhancing analytical reliability. We list examples of BMPs enabling the reliable analysis of NPS pollution: (1) Parallel terraces (PTs) were identified as the most effective in the southeastern coastal region of China in terms of the highest reduction rate and lower uncertainty, with an annual TN load coefficient of variation (CV) of 17%. Seasonal analysis was conducted, in which summer was identified to be the highest TN load input period for continuous precipitation [63]. (2) The study conducted on agricultural lands in the Yazoo River Watershed, Mississippi, USA, illustrated that RB and VFS’s width value was directly proportional to the extent of reduction. The combination of RB and VFS could enhance effectiveness, with the largest reductions (52% reduction in sediments, 37% reduction in total nitrogen, and 46% reduction in total phosphorus with a width of 20 m). Moreover, they employed the coefficient of determination (R2) and Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) to evaluate the calibration and validation performance of the SWAT model. The results demonstrated that the model performed relatively well when simulating water quality parameters such as TN and total TP, while its performance was less satisfactory when simulating sediment load. The researchers noted that the SWAT model assumed uniform fertilization and crop management practices across certain areas, which may not adequately capture the variability of actual field management. Therefore, further refinement of the model is needed to enhance its applicability and accuracy [64]. (3) In the research in the Ganges River Basin, India, maximum nitrate reduction appeared with an RB strip width of 18 m, and vegetated riparian buffers had the potential to yield economic benefits through their utilization as biomass and forage [65]. However, this was more costly at USD 20–43 per kg of N removed without subsidies, as shown in Ohio, US. In contrast, nutrient management showed the lowest cost per unit of nitrogen removed (USD 3/kg), which was much lower than that of RB. However, most of the BMPs were cost-effective even without subsidies, and the annualized costs were within a reasonable range compared to the environmental benefits they provide [66].
In addition to the analysis of economic costs, environmental benefits, and ecological benefits, there was a growing trend of exploring BMPs from alternative perspectives, such as vegetation traits [67], land cover characteristics [68], energy consumption [69], etc. These emerging approaches contributed to a broader and more nuanced understanding, offering more comprehensive and practical guidance for the effective implementation of BMPs in real-world contexts. For example, considering energy use efficiency, the Western Colorado Research Center in Colorado, USA, employed both LCA and Material Flow Cost Accounting (MFCA) to evaluate the sustainability of conventional tillage versus conservation tillage systems in maize production. Results showed that moldboard plow (MP) performed best in terms of GWP, acidification, and eutrophication potential, while no-tillage performed more effectively in terms of photochemical ozone creation potential and ozone depletion potential [69]. By revealing the hidden costs associated with material and energy losses, these researchers enabled the quantification of material and energy flows, which further supported the optimization of sustainable agricultural production systems.
An emerging trend in research has begun to address the socio-behavioral dimensions of BMP adoption, particularly focusing on farmers’ acceptance and decision-making processes. For instance, a study in California’s Sacramento Valley examined the influence of local diffusion networks on the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices. The results demonstrated that engagement with environmental networks, such as increasing farmers’ participation in knowledge-sharing platforms and technical training, could significantly increase the likelihood of adopting environmentally sound BMPs, such as alternative pest management strategies and runoff mitigation measures [70]. Similarly, in a parallel investigation conducted in northern Zimbabwe, the study assessed the adoption intentions of resource-limited smallholder farmers toward conservation-oriented BMPs. The findings highlighted a pronounced risk-averse behavior among smallholders, leading to lower adoption propensities for practices such as crop rotation, no-tillage, and mulching. In contrast, larger and better-capitalized farms were more inclined to implement these conservation BMPs due to their perceived and realized economic returns [71]. These insights underscore the importance of not only improving the engineering of BMPs but also considering farmers’ and decision-makers’ heterogeneity in BMP adoption and local institutional contexts in the design and dissemination of BMP interventions. The evaluation of BMPs’ availability and feasibility has become a heated study tendency.
In addition to the assessment of ANPS pollution and watershed governance measures, the volume of research on urban NPS management has shown a significant increase in the past five years. In the case study at Wuxi, Jiangsu province, China, three land use types—residential, industrial, and commercial land—accounted for 98% of the total load. In addition, the SWMM model substantiated a significant positive correlation between rainfall accumulation and pollution load (p < 0.01) for both TN and TP. BMP simulations showed that increasing the urban vegetation coverage rate was more effective than enhancing road cleaning. However, the BMPs were conducted on numerical simulations, and the data from calibrated in situ sampling and long-term monitoring networks remained unknown [72,73].
In addition, there is an emerging trend of integrating NPS pollution control with other prominent environmental issues. For instance, when adding the keyword “biochar” to a search in the WOS, all 15 related articles out of 1328 works were published after 2018, demonstrating a strong association with the rising interest in “green agriculture practices” [74]. Similarly, searching with the keyword “climate change” yielded 123 articles, of which 91 were published after 2018 (as shown in Figure 7), further highlighting the growing convergence between NPS pollution control assessment and topics of widespread public concern. This pattern suggests that future research directions in NPS pollution control and cost-effectiveness evaluation may progressively transition from purely technical enhancements toward resource recovery and integrated environmental utilization.

3.6.3. Perspectives for the Future

In summary, the scope and depth of research on NPS pollution control assessment have expanded significantly in recent years. Looking ahead, future studies in this field are expected to increasingly incorporate source-tracing analyses into multidisciplinary evaluation frameworks. This progression reflects a shift from merely assessing pollution reduction outcomes to more holistic evaluations that incorporate cost-effectiveness, ecological sustainability, social acceptability, policy feasibility, and other related factors. Concurrently, the methodological approach is expected to evolve from model-driven estimations toward field-based experimental validation, thereby enhancing the precision and sensitivity of impact assessments.
This trajectory aligns closely with the United Nations’ advocacy of efficient and scalable NPS pollution mitigation strategies under the framework of Sustainable Development Goals [75]. In parallel, as highlighted by The Nature Conservancy, nature-based solutions (NBSs) have demonstrated cost-effectiveness up to five times greater than that of traditional engineering measures [76]. As a result, there is likely to be a growing emphasis on the evaluation of non-structural measures (e.g., nutrient management), alongside the incorporation of innovative materials (e.g., biochar), emerging interdisciplinary themes, and the integration across multiple scientific domains.

3.6.4. Analytical Limitations

Several limitations of this work merit consideration. First, due to the complexity of cost–benefit analysis terminology, iterative keyword refinement could have introduced database bias, favoring studies on environmental and ecological benefits over economic evaluations. We used a single database as the literature source, which could potentially result in missing relevant research. Second, citation data were not normalized by publication time, limiting the accuracy of influence assessment. For instance, the recent published high-impact articles with lower citation counts may be underrepresented, limiting the accuracy of influence assessment. Third, this review covered NPS pollution control broadly, without focusing on specific sectors. Future studies should target more defined subfields, such as agricultural NPS pollution, for more precise and actionable insights.

4. Conclusions

Based on the bibliometric analysis of 1328 articles from the WOSCC Database, it can be stated that research on the assessment of NPS pollution control has shown a steadily increasing trend from January 1993 to April 2025. The analysis incorporates multiple dimensions, including annual publication output, the most prolific authors and journals, major funding organizations, keyword co-occurrence, and alignment with the UNSDGs. The findings indicate a particularly rapid expansion of research activity, with China and the United States emerging as the most prominent contributors.
Based on the keyword analysis, a comprehensive review outlines the evolutionary trajectory of research on NPS pollution control research—from pollutant tracing and model-based simulations of BMPs to multidimensional evaluations that integrate economic, environmental, ecological, and social dimensions. While early studies relied heavily on modeling tools such as AnnAGNPS to identify pollution sources, more recent research has prioritized multi-objective optimization and uncertainty analysis to enhance robustness and real-world applicability. The incorporation of ESV, LCA, and socio-behavioral factors has considerably expanded the scope of BMP evaluations.
Nevertheless, persistent challenges remain in field calibration, long-term monitoring, and stakeholder heterogeneity. Future research should focus on bridging model-based predictions with field-based validation to support the implementation of context-specific BMPs, particularly non-structural measures, which often exhibit higher ecological efficiency. Integrated frameworks of this kind are essential for achieving sustainable, adaptive, and locally tailored NPS pollution mitigation strategies, especially when contrasted with conventional structural approaches. Moreover, through interdisciplinary technological integration (e.g., remote sensing and financial–statistical systems), it is imperative to establish a globally standardized evaluation framework for NPS control measures to enhance cross-regional comparability. Strengthening international cooperation—particularly by encouraging increased participation from developing countries where agriculture remains a dominant predominant—will be instrumental in advancing a unified evaluation system aligned with the goals of the UNSDGs.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/w17142056/s1, Table S1. Details of keyword nodes merging. Table S2. Details of keyword nodes removal.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.G.; methodology, Q.G.; software, Q.G.; validation, Q.G.; formal analysis, Q.G.; investigation, Q.G.; resources, Q.G.; data curation, Q.G.; writing—original draft preparation, Q.G.; writing—review and editing, C.L.; visualization, Q.G.; supervision, S.L.; project administration, F.G.; and funding acquisition, F.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original data presented in the study are openly available in the [Web of Science (WOS) Database].

Acknowledgments

The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Water 17 02056 g001
Figure 1. Annual publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Figure 1. Annual publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
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Figure 2. Contributions of countries (regions) related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Figure 2. Contributions of countries (regions) related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
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Figure 3. Collaborative network of major countries (regions) related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Figure 3. Collaborative network of major countries (regions) related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
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Figure 4. Clustering map of major organizations related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Figure 4. Clustering map of major organizations related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
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Figure 5. Visualization map of keywords related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Figure 5. Visualization map of keywords related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
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Figure 6. Keyword clustering map related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Figure 6. Keyword clustering map related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
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Figure 7. Keyword overlay map related to assessment of BMPs of NPS pollution control from 2010 to 2025 a. a the timeframe “2010–2025” was selected due to the consideration of enhancing thematic clarity and visualization quality.
Figure 7. Keyword overlay map related to assessment of BMPs of NPS pollution control from 2010 to 2025 a. a the timeframe “2010–2025” was selected due to the consideration of enhancing thematic clarity and visualization quality.
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Table 1. Top five countries in terms of publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Table 1. Top five countries in terms of publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Rank of Total Publication NumberCountryNumber of Publications Number of CitationsAverage Citations per Article Total Link Strength
1China47910,86922.69156
2USA32213,18140.93146
3England 102404939.7080
4Canada59227638.5863
5Australia52170232.7354
Table 2. Top five institutions in terms of publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Table 2. Top five institutions in terms of publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Rank of Total Publication NumberOrganizationNumber of Publications Number of CitationsAverage Citations per Article Total Link Strength
1Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)124335527.06139
2Beijing Normal University (BNU)69243935.3530
3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS)3677121.4256
4United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS)28110039.6428
5Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES)2629511.3520
Table 3. Top ten authors in terms of publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Table 3. Top ten authors in terms of publication volume related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
AuthorCountryTotal PublicationsTotal CitationsAverage Citations per Article
Shen, ZhenyaoChina2196846.10
Liu, HongbinChina1935318.58
Ouyang, WeiChina1866637
Chen, LeiChina1656735.44
Zhang, LiangChina1116114.64
Collins, Adrian L. UK954460.44
Liu, RuiminChina949955.44
Hao, FanghuaChina941646.22
Liu, YongChina814618.25
Zhai, LimeiChina814618.25
Note: Authors with same publication volume were ranked by their total citations.
Table 4. The top five journals related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Table 4. The top five journals related to assessment of NPS pollution control from January 1993 to April 2025.
Rank of Total Publication NumberJournalsNumber of Publications Number of CitationsAverage Citations per Article Total Link Strength
1Science of the Total Environment108517247.89450
2Water Science and Technology82102512.5076
3Water7787811.40220
4Journal of Environmental Management72169223.50271
5Environmental Science and Pollution Research5592016.73161
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Geng, Q.; Lin, C.; Li, S.; Guo, F. A Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization of the Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution Control. Water 2025, 17, 2056. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142056

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Geng Q, Lin C, Li S, Guo F. A Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization of the Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution Control. Water. 2025; 17(14):2056. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142056

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Geng, Qijie, Changkun Lin, Shan Li, and Fei Guo. 2025. "A Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization of the Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution Control" Water 17, no. 14: 2056. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142056

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Geng, Q., Lin, C., Li, S., & Guo, F. (2025). A Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization of the Assessment of Non-Point Source Pollution Control. Water, 17(14), 2056. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17142056

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