Not a Drop to Drink: Addressing Nigeria’s Deepening Freshwater Crisis

Abstract

Nigeria is currently grappling with an acute freshwater crisis, characterized by a stark contradiction where abundant water resources coexist with a widespread lack of access to safe and reliable water. This study examines the complex interplay of factors driving this crisis. It highlights how climate change and the degradation of critical infrastructure and water management systems have significantly reduced the resilience of freshwater systems. This study draws on survey data to assess public perceptions of water scarcity and its causes, revealing a public consensus on the impacts and challenges of freshwater scarcity. This finding points to the pervasive nature of water insecurity in the surveyed population and suggests that reliable access to freshwater remains elusive for many. The findings emphasize the need for integrated, climate-resilient policies that include ecosystem restoration, infrastructure modernization, pollution control, and inclusive, community-based governance frameworks. Addressing these multifaceted challenges is essential not only for improving freshwater access but also for advancing public health, reducing conflict, and fostering sustainable development. This research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on water security in the Global South and outlines pathways for transformative water governance in Nigeria.

1. Introduction

The perception that water exists in abundant supply is a misnomer or misconception as usable freshwater is a limited and finite resource, essential for all forms of life. Unlike other resources, water has no substitute and, like air, it is irreplaceable. Yet, despite its critical importance, the world is facing a growing freshwater crisis [1,2]. The disparity in water access is stark when comparing freshwater availability across countries and regions. For example, the Horn of Africa, with its arid climate, has one of the lowest water availability rates per capita (100 L per capita per day) in the world [3,4]. The average water consumption per capita in some Nigerian communities is below 20 L per day, significantly lower than the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended minimum of 100 L per day. In contrast, Iceland possesses approximately 456,351 cubic meters of renewable internal freshwater resources per capita, in stark contrast to Nigeria’s 1011 cubic meters per capita. Iceland’s remarkable abundance of freshwater is largely attributed to its glacial and volcanic hydrology, coupled with a relatively small population [5,6]. This imbalance highlights the uneven distribution of water resources globally and the challenges faced by water-stressed regions.

As the human population continues to grow, the demand for freshwater resources increases. Currently there are over 8 billion people on earth that share 2.5% of the earth’s available global freshwater resource [7]. Therefore, water conservation will continue to be an important factor in the immediate and foreseeable future. By 2040, it is projected that most countries will not have enough water to meet year-round demand, underscoring the urgency of addressing this global challenge [7,8].

Studies show that around 1.8 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water [9] while 2.8 billion lack basic sanitation services [10,11]. Freshwater scarcity in Africa, particularly in Nigeria with a rapid population growth of 227 million, has led to increased water stress [12,13]. The current gaps in meeting freshwater needs hinder the capacity to adapt to health, nutrition, equality, well-being, and economic progress. The fight against poverty, the pursuit of development, and national security are all deeply intertwined with water security. The consequences of the water crisis are deeply concerning, threatening to further undermine important development progress.

Despite the growing body of research on water scarcity in Nigeria, significant gaps remain in the integration of climate resilience, water infrastructure, and public perception within the national discourse. Many existing studies tend to focus narrowly on hydrological measurements, regional rainfall patterns, or infrastructure decay in isolation, without examining the interconnected effects of climate change and institutional weaknesses on water governance. Moreover, public perception and lived experiences of water scarcity, particularly how communities understand and respond to the crisis, are often overlooked. This lack of integration has limited the development of holistic, context-specific solutions. There is also a notable scarcity of empirical studies that synthesize environmental, demographic, and institutional variables while engaging directly with the experiences of those most affected by water insecurity.

This study offers a novel contribution by adopting a multidimensional framework that combines empirical survey data with thematic analysis to assess public perceptions of freshwater scarcity in Nigeria. It is among the first to triangulate population growth, climate change, and water management challenges using nationally distributed survey evidence. This study not only captures regional disparities in water access but also evaluates how these challenges are experienced differently based on demographic and geographic factors. Furthermore, it advances the discourse by aligning findings with policy and infrastructure solutions aimed at building climate-resilient water systems. By centering community voices and combining them with systemic and environmental insights, this research provides actionable, evidence-based recommendations for sustainable water governance in Nigeria.

2. Exploring Water’s Vital Role

Water is fundamental to life and has shaped the functioning of Earth’s ecosystems for over 4.5 billion years [14,15]. Water is often referred to as “liquid gold” [16] or the “petroleum of the 21st century”; water’s growing value underscores its status as a finite and increasingly scarce resource. Just as oil drove the global economy in the 20th century, water is becoming a critical resource in the 21st century, with its availability and commodification having a direct impact on economic growth, political stability, and social development [17]. It is essential for human survival and depending on the source and context, such as age, gender, activity level, climate, and individual health conditions, an average person consumes about 2.0 L (2000 mL) of water per day [18]. However, human use of freshwater extends far beyond personal consumption. Globally, freshwater use accounts for approximately 2.5% of available water resources [19]. Agriculture alone consumes around 87% of the world’s freshwater, as it is critical for irrigation and food production [19]. Industries, including manufacturing and energy production, account for a significant portion of the remaining usage. This heavy reliance on water underscores its role as a cornerstone of socioeconomic development and human well-being.

Water plays a crucial role in all system transitions and influences all phases of industrial and sustainable energy transitions [20]. In industrial processes, water is essential for cooling, processing, and manufacturing, making it integral to various sectors such as chemicals, textiles, and electronics. As industries shift toward more sustainable practices, land and water management become increasingly vital to sustainability actions and remain central to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In the context of energy transitions, water is a key factor in both traditional and renewable energy production. The changing availability and demand for water will directly influence the success and pace of these transitions, highlighting the need for integrated water management strategies that balance resource use across sectors.

Clean water, once taken for granted, is increasingly becoming a precious commodity, gaining new value as scarcity rises. Studies indicate that around 1.8 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water [9]. These deficiencies contribute to approximately 250 million cases of waterborne diseases and result in five to ten million deaths annually [21]. The modern understanding of water security highlights that particular drivers of population growth, urbanization, contamination, unsustainable water extraction practices, and climate change are collectively threatening the global freshwater supply. Many African nations are already facing a substantial gap between the water they can reliably supply and the amount needed to meet their economic demands under these conditions. Studies indicate that, under current economic and industrial trends, global water demand could exceed the available, reliable supply by 40% by 2030 [22].

Threats to water resources are mounting, particularly in Africa, where rapid population growth is placing unprecedented pressure on already limited water supplies. Studies show that water consumption in Africa has increased by 50% in this century [23]. This surge in demand is occurring against a backdrop of dwindling water availability, as climate change disrupts rainfall patterns and exacerbates water scarcity. However, despite its importance, Africa is not investing sufficiently in the financial resources needed to safeguard and manage its water sources [24]. This lack of investment in water governance and management exacerbates the continent’s water crisis, leaving millions without access to clean water and undermining efforts to fight poverty and promote development.

Globally, water withdrawal has reached alarming levels, with hydrological maps illustrating strain on the global water resources [25]. The rain that farmers rely on to irrigate crops is erratic, leading to reduced agricultural productivity and food insecurity. In many regions, the inability to access surface water (rivers, watercourses, canals, lagoons, and tarns) has forced communities to turn to underground water sources, such as aquifers, for survival. However, this reliance on groundwater is unsustainable. Already, 50% of the world’s clean water stored in aquifers has been extracted, and at current rates, these critical underground reserves could be depleted within 30 to 50 years [26]. Aquifers, which accumulate water over millennia, are being drained far faster than they can be replenished, threatening long-term water security. The results show that global water stress experienced an increase of 18.6% from 2015 to 2021 [27].

Agricultural runoff further compounds the problem, contaminating both surface and groundwater sources. The over-extraction of groundwater is also causing land subsidence, where the ground sinks as water is removed from underground reservoirs. In some cities, such as Mexico City, this phenomenon has reached critical levels, with infrastructure and buildings literally sinking into the ground [28].

Water conservation and water-saving measures have become increasingly critical as the global demand for freshwater continues to rise [29]. With population growth, rapid urbanization, and climate change placing immense pressure on water resources, efficient water use is essential to accelerate sustainable use and management of water resources as it helps conserve this vital resource, supports ecosystem health, and meets the needs of growing populations. Conservation efforts include promoting water-saving technologies, fixing leaks in water infrastructure, and encouraging behavioral changes such as reducing water waste in households and industries. In agriculture, which consumes the largest share, 72% of freshwater, adopting efficient irrigation techniques like drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting can significantly reduce water use [27]. Despite these efforts, the growing demand for water has led to the exploration of alternative sources [30].

The United Nations (UN) recognized access to clean water and sanitation as a fundamental human right, affirming that every individual is entitled to safe and affordable drinking water and adequate sanitation services [31]. This recognition marked a significant step forward in the global effort to address water inequality and improve public health. However, despite this declaration, 695 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions still lack access to these basic services [32]. Ensuring universal access to water and sanitation remains a major challenge, requiring substantial investment in infrastructure, policy reforms, and international cooperation. At the same time, the UN’s recognition of water and sanitation as human rights underscores the moral imperative to ensure that everyone, regardless of their location or socioeconomic status, has access to these essential resources. Achieving this goal will require commitment to institutional and political will and scaling up of appropriately designed and targeted investments to make water access a priority.

3. Drivers and Impacts of Water Scarcity in Africa

Water is a fundamental resource that sustains earth’s ecosystems and is vital for human survival. Yet, despite its critical importance, millions of people in Africa continue to lack access to clean and safe water supplies. This highlights a profound crisis that affects public health, economic development, and social stability across the continent. The belief that freshwater is plentiful in Africa is misleading. While the continent is home to vast water resources, including rivers, lakes, and aquifers, access to clean and safe water remains a significant challenge. Water resources are unevenly distributed across the continent, with some regions experiencing chronic water shortages (for example, North Africa) while others (for example, Iceland and Canada) have relatively more abundant supplies [33,34]. Erratic precipitation patterns, prolonged droughts, and rising temperatures due to climate change accelerate evaporation, leading to a faster depletion of groundwater, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.

As freshwater becomes scarcer, it transforms into a commodity, with its value rising in tandem with demand. Many urban and rural communities in Africa struggle to access clean and affordable water, leading to increased reliance on private water vendors. This has profound equity implications, as low-income populations often cannot afford reliable access to clean water. For example, in Nigeria, many residents depend on expensive and unsustainable alternatives such as water tankers, private boreholes, rainwater collection, bottled or sachet water, and hand-dug wells due to the unreliability of public water systems [35]. In many cases, poorer households trek long distances to reach these water sources. This situation deepens inequalities, as wealthier individuals and businesses can afford boreholes, private suppliers, or bottled water, while poorer communities and individuals resort to unsafe water sources, increasing their vulnerability to diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

The challenge of water security lies in transcending crisis management and competition over water demand to achieve a balance between the water needs of people and the ecosystem [36]. This principle is increasingly reflected in modern definitions of water security. For instance, ref. [37] defines water security as a state where “sufficient water of good quality is available to meet social, economic, and cultural needs, while simultaneously ensuring adequate water to sustain and enhance critical ecosystem functions” [37]. This dual focus underscores the importance of integrating efficient hydrological requirements into the water management framework, ensuring long-term sustainability.

As discussed above, Africa faces water scarcity, a situation exacerbated by climate change, population growth, and inadequate infrastructure [38]. One out of every three people in Africa are exposed to water scarcity, a staggering statistic that underscores the severity of the continent’s water crisis [39]. This means that approximately 33% of Africa’s population struggles to access sufficient clean and safe water for their daily needs, including drinking, cooking, and sanitation [40]. The situation is particularly dire in regions already grappling with arid climates, erratic rainfall, and the impacts of climate change. Nigeria’s water infrastructure faces significant challenges due to aging systems, underinvestment, and inadequate maintenance [41]. Many water treatment plants, pipelines, and dams constructed decades ago have deteriorated, leading to frequent service disruptions, water losses, and contamination risks. For instance, the Ajali Water Works in Enugu State, supplying 77,000 cubic meters of water daily, has suffered from mismanagement and erosion, compromising its functionality [42,43]. Similarly, the Farin Ruwa Multipurpose Dam in Nasarawa State, initiated in 2003 to generate 20 megawatts of electricity and support socioeconomic development, was abandoned for nearly two decades due to funding constraints [44]. In response to these challenges, various restoration and development initiatives have been undertaken to revive abandoned dam projects in Nasarawa, Ekiti, and Plateau states, aiming to mitigate flooding and boost hydropower generation. In Lagos State, support has been provided for the rehabilitation of water infrastructure, including the restoration of five mini waterworks in communities such as Badore, Lekki, and Ajegunle, including rehabilitation and expansion of the state’s water supply infrastructure [45]. Other notable efforts include the rehabilitation and the restoration of the Otammiri Waterworks in Imo State and the Asejire Reservoir in Oyo State [46].

These initiatives reflect a growing recognition of the critical need to modernize Nigeria’s water infrastructure. However, sustained investment, effective governance, and community engagement remain essential to ensure the long-term success and resilience of these systems. As the demand for water continues to rise, the strain on already limited water resources intensifies [42]. This scarcity has far-reaching consequences for the continent. Without urgent and coordinated efforts to address the root causes of freshwater scarcity, the crisis will only deepen, leaving millions more vulnerable to its devastating effects.

Poor sanitation, unsafe water, and inadequate hygiene claim countless lives across Africa every year [43]. This alarming statistic highlights the devastating impact of the water crisis on public health across the continent. Contaminated water sources, frequently polluted by industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal, are breeding grounds for waterborne diseases [44]. Poor hygiene practices, compounded by the lack of access to clean water and proper sanitation facilities, further exacerbate pathogenic contamination [45]. Studies show that children under the age of five are particularly susceptible to waterborne diseases, which are one of the leading causes of death in this age group [46,47]. The lack of clean water and sanitation not only claims lives but also places a heavy burden on healthcare systems, reduces productivity, and perpetuates cycles of poverty [43]. The toll of preventable deaths continues to rise, undermining efforts to achieve sustainable development and improve quality of life across the continent.

Additionally, high water stress challenges food security in Africa, limiting irrigation and agrifood productivity, with over 100 million people in East and Southern Africa, approximately 45 million people in Central Africa, and around 70 million people in West Africa affected by varying degrees of food insecurity and in need of food aid. Future scenarios predict pervasive conflict-induced food insecurity and unsustainable economic growth in the continent [44].

Hydrological Landscapes of Nigeria

Nigeria is endowed with extensive freshwater resources, including major rivers such as the Niger and Benue, extensive groundwater aquifers, and numerous lakes and reservoirs (Table 1 and Figure 1). The Niger River (4100 km long) is the largest and most important river, flowing from the northwest to the south before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean through the Niger Delta [48]. The Benue River (1400 km) is the second-largest river, joining the Niger at Lokoja and providing significant water resources for agriculture and domestic use [49]. Lake Chad, one of Africa’s largest lakes, is in the north east. Kainji Lake, a man-made reservoir created for hydroelectric power, is an important water body for fisheries and irrigation. Other notable rivers include the Kaduna, Gongola, Ogun, Osun, Imo, and Cross Rivers, which serve various regions for irrigation, hydropower, and drinking water. Reservoirs such as Jebba, Shiroro, and Tiga Dams contribute to water storage and electricity generation [50]. However, the exact volume of freshwater in the country is difficult to quantify precisely due to several factors, including seasonal variability, inadequate monitoring infrastructure, unregulated groundwater extraction, and discrepancies in data collection methods. For instance, surface water levels fluctuate with rainfall patterns, while underground aquifers are poorly mapped. Additionally, illegal drilling and informal water use go unrecorded, further complicating accurate assessments.

Table 1. Sources of freshwater in Nigeria.

Source	Description	Volume
Surface Water	Nigeria has extensive surface water resources, including rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. The country is drained by several major river systems, such as the Niger River and Benue River, which together form the largest river system in West Africa.	The total surface water resources in Nigeria are estimated at 221 billion cubic meters (BCM) per year, with the Niger River alone contributing a significant portion of this volume [51].
Groundwater	Nigeria has substantial groundwater reserves, particularly in the sedimentary basins of the Niger Delta, Sokoto Basin, and Chad Basin.	The estimated groundwater reserves in Nigeria are approximately 52 BCM per year, though only a fraction of this is currently utilized [51].
Rainfall	Nigeria receives an average annual rainfall of about 1150 mm, but this varies significantly across regions. The south receives heavy rainfall (up to 4000 mm annually), while the north is more arid (less than 500 mm annually) [51].	The total volume of rainwater is estimated at 400 BCM per year, though much of this is lost to evaporation or runoff [51].
Total Renewable Water Resources	The total renewable water resources in Nigeria (surface water + groundwater) are estimated at 286 BCM per year, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) [51].	Only about 1% of Nigeria’s freshwater resources are currently utilized, highlighting the need for better management and investment in water infrastructure.

Table 1. Sources of freshwater in Nigeria.

Source	Description	Volume
Surface Water	Nigeria has extensive surface water resources, including rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. The country is drained by several major river systems, such as the Niger River and Benue River, which together form the largest river system in West Africa.	The total surface water resources in Nigeria are estimated at 221 billion cubic meters (BCM) per year, with the Niger River alone contributing a significant portion of this volume [51].
Groundwater	Nigeria has substantial groundwater reserves, particularly in the sedimentary basins of the Niger Delta, Sokoto Basin, and Chad Basin.	The estimated groundwater reserves in Nigeria are approximately 52 BCM per year, though only a fraction of this is currently utilized [51].
Rainfall	Nigeria receives an average annual rainfall of about 1150 mm, but this varies significantly across regions. The south receives heavy rainfall (up to 4000 mm annually), while the north is more arid (less than 500 mm annually) [51].	The total volume of rainwater is estimated at 400 BCM per year, though much of this is lost to evaporation or runoff [51].
Total Renewable Water Resources	The total renewable water resources in Nigeria (surface water + groundwater) are estimated at 286 BCM per year, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) [51].	Only about 1% of Nigeria’s freshwater resources are currently utilized, highlighting the need for better management and investment in water infrastructure.

Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing major rivers and hydrological basins [52].

Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing major rivers and hydrological basins [52].

4. Pillars of Sustainable Water Management

The integrated dimensions of freshwater sustainability describe how effectively and efficiently water resources perform their multiple functions and support various needs, whether for human consumption, agricultural use, industrial processes, or ecological balance [53] (Figure 2). They encompass how well water resources are managed, distributed, and utilized to meet the needs of populations, ecosystems, and economies. Nigeria’s water sector struggles with inefficiencies due to weak institutional capacity, inadequate funding, and fragmented policies that fail to address growing water demands. Governance challenges result in overlapping responsibilities between federal, state, and local authorities, leading to poor coordination and ineffective implementation of water policies. The inefficiencies in Nigeria’s water sector significantly impact the efficacy of water management, limiting access to clean and reliable water for millions of people. This disjointed approach hampers integrated water resource management (IWRM), reducing efficiency in water allocation, conservation, and disaster preparedness, particularly during droughts and floods, making it difficult to provide equitable and sustainable access to clean water. Key aspects of water sustainability include the following (Figure 2):

1.

Access and Availability: The extent to which water is accessible to all segments of the population, particularly in water-scarce regions.

2.

Quality: The safety and cleanliness of water for drinking, sanitation, and other uses.

3.

Sustainability: The ability to manage water resources in a way that meets current needs without compromising future availability.

4.

Efficiency: The optimal use of water in agriculture, industry, and households to minimize waste.

5.

Equity: Fair distribution of water resources, ensuring marginalized communities are not disproportionately affected by scarcity.

4.1. Barriers to Effective Water Use in Nigeria

Water consumption in Nigeria and across Africa is a critical issue, shaped by a combination of infrastructural deficiencies, population growth, and the impacts of climate change [54]. The paradox of being water-rich yet water-poor is stark. The country is endowed with abundant water resources, including rivers, lakes, and groundwater, yet it is classified as water-poor, with a Water Poverty Index of 43.9% [55]. This paradox is driven by poor water management, inadequate infrastructure, and the uneven distribution of resources. With a population of approximately 227 million, Nigeria faces significant water security challenges, as an estimated 75 million citizens—roughly one-third of the population—experience water scarcity. This substantial portion of the population depends on informal water sources such as unprotected wells, boreholes, and untreated surface water, which often fail to meet basic safety and reliability standards [56]. Open wells, contaminated by pollutants and poor sanitation, exacerbate public health crises, including cholera outbreaks. Even boreholes, which are a common alternative, are frequently located near unsanitary areas, further compromising water quality. Less than 40% of Nigerians have access to piped water, while 60% depend on unsustainable water sources such as boreholes, processed waters, and hand-dug wells [57].

Rainfall in Nigeria is highly seasonal, with distinct regional variations that exacerbate water access challenges. The southern regions receive heavy rainfall, often leading to flooding and waterlogging, while the northern savannah areas face frequent droughts, creating a stark contrast in water availability. Climate change is further disrupting these patterns, intensifying the unpredictability and severity of weather events. In the south, increased rainfall variability is causing more frequent and severe floods, damaging infrastructure and contaminating water sources. In the north, prolonged droughts are becoming more common, exacerbating water scarcity and threatening agriculture, livelihoods, and food security [58]. These shifting patterns highlight the urgent need for adaptive water management strategies, improved infrastructure, and climate-resilient policies to mitigate the impacts of climate change and ensure sustainable water access across Nigeria. For example, the 2012 flood disaster in Nigeria claimed the lives of 363 people and displaced more than 2.1 million individuals [59,60]. According to [61], approximately seven million people were affected by the floods, which caused estimated damage and losses of around NGN 2.6 trillion [62,63]. This disaster underscores the devastating consequences of flooding and climate change in Nigeria.

Across Africa, climate change is intensifying the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, including floods, droughts, and storms. Rising global temperatures have disrupted traditional rainfall patterns, leading to prolonged droughts in some areas and excessive rainfall in others. These climate-induced challenges are compounded by limited adaptive capacity to effectively adapt to climate change [63]. In addition to immediate impacts like displacement and loss of life, climate change is driving long-term socioeconomic consequences. Agricultural productivity is declining due to unpredictable weather, exacerbating poverty and food insecurity. Water scarcity is becoming more acute, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, forcing communities to compete for dwindling resources.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, (clean water and sanitation) and SDG11 (sustainable communities and cities) [64], which aim to ensure access to clean water and sanitation for all, are slipping out of reach for many in Africa. Despite global commitments, progress has been slow, particularly in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa, where water scarcity and poor water infrastructure remain pervasive.

In this sense, addressing the water crisis in Africa requires a multi-faceted approach that combines policy interventions, investment in water infrastructure, and circularity. Expanding access to piped water, constructing water treatment plants, and processed water are critical measures to improve access to clean water in Nigeria. However, despite the drilling of an average of 400 boreholes daily, these efforts come with significant risks and major concerns of aquifer contamination and subsidence remain [65]. In many cases, improper drilling techniques, lack of maintenance, and insufficient regulation exacerbate these risks, potentially compromising the safety and sustainability of water sources [66].

4.2. Conceptual Framework of Freshwater Scarcity in Nigeria

Freshwater scarcity is a complex and multidimensional challenge influenced by a range of interrelated drivers (Figure 3). At its core, it stems from failures in governance and institutional frameworks, where poor water management, indiscriminate drilling of boreholes, and inadequate regulatory oversight prevent the sustainable use and distribution of water resources. This institutional weakness is compounded by infrastructural and technological deficits, particularly aging infrastructure and the limited development of water recycling and storage systems, which reduce the system’s ability to respond to growing demand and environmental variability.

Demographic pressures further exacerbate the issue stemming from rapid population growth and unchecked urban expansion place increasing stress on existing water systems, overwhelming infrastructure and intensifying competition for limited supplies. At the same time, environmental and climatic stressors such as climate change, which manifests through more frequent and severe droughts, floods, and rising temperatures, undermine the reliability and predictability of freshwater sources. These environmental changes are often accompanied by pollution and contamination from industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources, further degrading water quality.

Overexploitation of water resources, including the rapid extraction of groundwater, accelerates depletion and reduces the recharge capacity of aquifers. This constellation of pressures feeds into a series of mediating feedback effects, including increased overall demand for water, a decline in water quality, and a reduction in aquifer recharge rates. These dynamics contribute to heightened water conflict, greater social inequity in water access, and adverse health and livelihood outcomes. Altogether, these interlocking factors create a self-reinforcing cycle that deepens the crisis of freshwater scarcity and demands integrated, systemic responses.

5. The Impacts of Climate Change

Climate change is not just an environmental issue but interconnects with humanitarian crises that are deepening poverty and water inequalities, displacing communities, and fueling conflicts over dwindling resources [66]. The interplay between population growth, water scarcity, and climate change creates a vicious cycle that threatens to undermine decades of development progress in Africa (Figure 3). Africa is facing an existential water challenge. Rivers that once flowed steadily are drying up, and aquifers are being depleted faster than they can be replenished. The consequences of climate change are severe and far-reaching. The disruption of rain patterns, driven by the release of CO₂ and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, is altering ecosystems and threatening livelihoods in the region through crop failures, livestock losses, and widespread food insecurity. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellite data reveals that parts of Africa such as Lagos, Banjul, Mombasa, and Mogadishu are experiencing hydrologic change and significant land subsidence of 1–5 cm/year, a direct consequence of excessive groundwater extraction [67]. This alarming trend underscores the fragility of water resources in the face of growing demand and environmental degradation. Climate change is exacerbating the situation, causing erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and more frequent flooding. The rain that once reliably filled lakes and rivers has diminished, leaving communities vulnerable to water shortages and the associated risks of disease and food insecurity.

Climate-induced migration and displacement are also on the rise, as communities in water-stressed regions are internally displaced [68]. This movement leads to conflicts over land and water, exacerbating insecurity and social tensions. Lake Chad, once a vital oasis supporting the livelihoods of over 30 million people across Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, and Niger, is now a stark symbol of the water crisis gripping Africa [69]. The lake, which has shrunk by 90% since the 1960s, is drying up at an alarming rate due to a combination of climate change, overuse of water resources, and population growth [70]. This drastic reduction has had catastrophic effects on the communities that depend on it for fishing, farming, and grazing. As the lake recedes, livelihoods are destroyed, food insecurity deepens, and poverty worsens, pushing already vulnerable populations to the brink. The drying up of Lake Chad, for instance, has disrupted the delicate balance between nomadic herders and farmers in the south of Nigeria. As water and grazing lands disappear, clashes between these groups have become increasingly frequent and violent. These conflicts are further exacerbated by climate migration, as herders are forced to move southward in search of water and pasture, leading to displacement and heightened insecurity in regions already struggling with instability [71,72]. The situation in Darfur, Sudan, is equally dire, where water scarcity has exacerbated long-standing conflicts [73]. Competition over dwindling water resources has intensified tensions between communities, contributing to violence and displacement. Water conflicts are not unique to Africa; they are a global issue, but the continent is particularly vulnerable due to its reliance on rain-fed agriculture and limited infrastructure to manage water resources effectively.

5.1. Climate Action Through Policy

Efforts to address freshwater scarcity in Nigeria exacerbated by climate change include policy initiatives, infrastructure development, and community-based adaptation strategies. The Nigerian government has implemented the National Water Resources Bill to improve water governance and integrated management [74]. Additionally, the National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate Change (NASPA-CCN) promotes sustainable water use and climate-resilient agriculture [75]. Projects such as the construction of small-scale irrigation systems and rainwater harvesting aim to enhance water availability in drought-prone regions [76]. However, challenges like inadequate funding and weak enforcement persist, limiting effectiveness [77]. Preliminary results indicate localized improvements in water access, but systemic issues such as pollution and over-extraction remain unresolved, necessitating stronger institutional frameworks and stakeholder collaboration for long-term sustainability.

5.2. The Freshwater Divide

It is essential to understand that access to freshwater is deeply intertwined with socioeconomic and political dynamics. The gap between privileged and deprived communities in water access is a global issue, manifesting differently across contexts. In the Global South, structural inequalities result in stark disparities, while in the Global North, marginalized groups, such as indigenous communities and low-income populations, face similar challenges [78,79].

Studies highlight that poor and marginalized communities, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas in Africa, lack access to reliable water systems [80]. In many Nigerian communities, water is traditionally viewed as a shared resource [81]. However, the privatization and commodification of water sources undermines these communal rights, leading to conflicts over water access and use, with millions lacking access to clean water and sanitation [82]. This further poses serious risks for poor and unserved groups, potentially exacerbating poverty, health disparities, and deepening social inequities.

Ref. [83] highlights the role of political will and international cooperation in addressing these disparities, emphasizing the need for global solidarity. Studies from South Africa, where post-apartheid policies have sought to redress historical inequities, demonstrate both the potential and limitations of such efforts [84].

Research highlights that policies fail to account for the needs of marginalized communities, perpetuating inequities. Ref. [85] argues that neoliberal water governance, which prioritizes commodification of water resources, further exacerbates inequalities by making water access contingent on the ability to pay. Conversely, public management models, when designed inclusively, prioritize water ethics, equity and universal access. For example, ref. [86] emphasizes the importance of participatory governance, where marginalized communities are actively involved in decision-making processes to ensure their needs are met. Inclusive policies must also address intersecting vulnerabilities, such as gender, race, and class, as highlighted by [87], which notes that women in developing countries bear the burden of water scarcity due to entrenched social hierarchies.

In this context equitable water access requires a commitment to water justice, including the systemic inequalities that underpin water poverty. Ref. [88] argues that water scarcity is a product of social and political processes rather than physical shortages, with marginalized groups disproportionately affected [89]. However, implementation remains a challenge in Nigeria, particularly in regions where disparities and exclusion are deeply entrenched. Ref. [90] emphasizes the need to confront power imbalances in water governance, ensuring that the rights of marginalized communities and principles of the common good are upheld and central to the solution of water inequality. Ref. [91] highlights how the expropriation of water resources for profit-making and capitalist accumulation exacerbates the global water crisis.

6. Materials and Methods

This research adopts a quantitative survey design, which enables the collection of standardized data across a broad demographic to analyze patterns, correlations, and trends related to water access and governance. The sampling strategy ensured representation from both urban and rural areas across Nigeria’s major regions, capturing diverse socioeconomic and geographic perspectives. Data collection was conducted through a hybrid approach, combining online surveys via the JISC platform version 3, targeting digitally connected urban populations, and paper-based surveys in selected rural communities to ensure inclusivity. The sample size of 108 respondents was deemed sufficient to provide meaningful insights while maintaining manageability, and demographic variables such as age, gender, education, and location were carefully tracked to ensure balance and diversity (

Table 2. Sociodemographic profile.

Variable	Percent
Gender	69.2
	30.8
Age	15.4
	7.7
	38.5
	38.5
Education	7.7
	30.8
	46.2
	15.4
Region	15.4
	7.7
	15.4
	23.1
	15.4
	23.1
Primary Water Source	53.8
	30.8
	15.4

). Data collection took place over a period of 2 months, with a structured questionnaire consisting of Likert scale-type questions designed to assess awareness of freshwater issues, perceived causes of water scarcity, and attitudes toward water governance and climate change adaptation.

Ethical considerations were central to the study design: participation was voluntary, all responses were anonymized, and no personally identifiable information was collected, thus upholding the highest standards of research integrity.

6.1. Study Design

This study focused on Nigeria (Figure 1), a country with significant regional variations in water availability, climate conditions, and socioeconomic factors. Data was collected from both urban and rural areas to ensure a representative sample. This study targets adults aged 18 and above who reside in Nigeria and are directly or indirectly affected by freshwater scarcity. Respondents were provided with a clear explanation of the study’s purpose, their rights, and how their data will be used. All responses were anonymized, and no personal identifiable information was collected or shared.

6.2. Results and Discussion

All 108 respondents consented to participate, ensuring full engagement. The gender split was 69.2% males and 30.8% females, and the age distribution skewed toward older adults, with most participants aged 44–64 (Table 1). This demographic profile suggests that the perspectives captured are shaped by considerable lived experience, potentially influencing the depth and nuance of the responses regarding water-related challenges (Table 2). Regional representation is diverse in the sample, with respondents from all major regions of Nigeria. This shows a broad geographic spread, supporting the generalizability of the findings within the sample’s limitations (Table 2).

6.3. Data Analysis and Statistical Tools

The collected survey data was analyzed using a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical methods to explore respondent characteristics, perceptions, and the relationships among key variables. Descriptive statistics using IBM SPSS statistic software version 26 were used to summarize the data, including the calculation of frequencies and percentages for categorical responses such as gender distribution, water source types, and levels of awareness about climate change. To enhance interpretability, the results are presented using visual aids such as pie charts, which illustrate the distribution of responses across various categories.

Inferential statistics were employed to assess potential associations between variables. Tests were conducted to examine relationships between demographic characteristics and reported experiences or perceptions—for example, the link between population and water scarcity experiences, and between water source type and reported health issues. Statistical significance was evaluated at the 95% confidence level, with p-values less than 0.05 considered indicative of a statistically significant association. These analyses provided a robust quantitative foundation for interpreting the survey data and informed the broader discussion of freshwater challenges in Nigeria. The analysis below walks through the key findings, supported by visualizations, and interprets their implications for policy, community action, and future research.

The primary source of drinking water for most respondents was boreholes (53.8%), followed by purchased water (30.8%) and piped water (15.4%). Notably, none relied on wells, rivers, or rainwater harvesting (Table 2). This highlights a dependence on groundwater and commercial water vendors, which reflects both infrastructural gaps and economic constraints. This study makes it clear that water scarcity is a persistent and widespread challenge. The majority (63.7%) of respondents reported that they always experience water scarcity, 23.1% sometimes, and only 13.2% never (Figure 4). This pattern is consistent with studies in regions facing chronic water stress, where persistent scarcity is the norm rather than the exception, thus emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable solutions and interventions to improve water access and reliability. Such a high prevalence of constant water scarcity suggests that coping mechanisms are stretched to their limits, and that resilience is likely eroding.

Awareness of the impacts of climate change on freshwater resources is moderate to high among respondents. The data shows that 38.5% are moderately aware, 23.1% are very aware, and 15.4% are extremely aware, while only 23.1% are slightly aware and none are completely unaware, indicating a relatively informed sample (Figure 5). This level of awareness could facilitate public support for water conservation policies and adaptive measures, though targeted education for the less-aware minority (23.1%) may further enhance community resilience.

A significant 69.2% of respondents reported that they or someone in their household had experienced health issues due to lack of clean water, while 30.8% had not (Figure 6). This aligns with global studies that consistently link inadequate water access to increased disease burden, especially in low-resource settings. The high percentage underscores the direct health risks posed by water scarcity and poor water quality.

The findings indicate strong public recognition of climate change as a key driver of freshwater scarcity in Nigeria, with 76.9% of respondents attributing significant influence to its exacerbating effects (Figure 7). This consensus suggests heightened community readiness to support climate-adaptive water management policies, though persistent knowledge gaps among the remaining 23.1% may require targeted awareness campaigns to ensure inclusive participation in mitigation and adaptation strategies. Such widespread acknowledgment could strengthen advocacy for evidence-based interventions while underscoring the need for institutional frameworks that translate public concern into coordinated action against water stress. The results reinforce the urgency of integrating climate resilience into national water governance while addressing localized disparities in risk perception.

The survey data reveals significant public dissatisfaction with drinking water quality, with a combined 53.9% expressing dissatisfaction (23.1% very dissatisfied and 30.8% dissatisfied) compared to only 30.8% reporting satisfaction (23.1% satisfied and 7.7% very satisfied) (Figure 8). This pronounced discontent underscores systemic challenges in water provision, stemming from inadequate infrastructure, contamination risks, and inconsistent water supply. The high dissatisfaction levels suggest that current water management strategies are insufficient to meet public expectations, potentially exacerbating vulnerabilities to waterborne diseases and socioeconomic disparities. These findings align with broader concerns about Nigeria’s water security and emphasize the urgent need for improved purification systems, equitable distribution, and stricter regulatory enforcement to enhance water quality and restore public trust in water services.

The overwhelming consensus among respondents (92.3%) that population growth exacerbates freshwater scarcity (Figure 9) aligns with established hydrological and demographic research, reinforcing the classic water stress framework articulated by [92] and later expanded by [93]. This near-unanimous perception reflects empirical realities in Nigeria, where rapid urbanization and demographic expansion intensify demand on already stressed water systems, outpacing infrastructural development and natural recharge rates. The 7.7% dissenting minority may represent either localized exceptions where water infrastructure keeps pace with population or gaps in public understanding of coupled human–environment systems. These findings underscore the critical need for integrated water resource management that simultaneously addresses demographic planning, demand-side conservation, and supply augmentation to achieve SDG 6 targets amidst Nigeria’s ongoing population growth. The strong public recognition of this linkage could facilitate acceptance of potentially sensitive policy interventions, such as water pricing reforms or decentralized allocation systems, provided they are implemented with equitable considerations for vulnerable populations.

The strong consensus among respondents (77% combined agreement) that poor water management exacerbates scarcity corroborates scholarly critiques of institutional failures in water governance. The absence of disagreement and limited neutrality (23.1%) suggests near-universal recognition of governance deficiencies as a key driver of water stress, independent of climatic or demographic factors (Figure 10). This public perception aligns with documented cases of inefficient allocation systems, maintenance neglect, and policy fragmentation in Nigeria’s water sector. The findings highlight an opportunity for policymakers to leverage this consensus when implementing governance reforms, particularly given that management failures represent a more immediately addressable factor than slower-moving challenges like climate change. The results reinforce the need for capacity building in water institutions, transparent decision-making, and adaptive management frameworks to translate this public awareness into improved water security outcomes.

6.4. Key Regional Correlation

The regional analysis of freshwater scarcity in Nigeria reveals distinct patterns of challenges across various geopolitical zones (Figure 11 and Figure 12 and

Table 3. Regional correlation.

Region	PWM%	RPG%	AI%	CC%	IA%	ID%	PC%	RE%
North Central	25.7	20.4	13.0	16.0	12.0	9.8	9.7	4.8
North East	15.9	20.8	7.9	12.1	8.7	8.4	12.8	5.1
North West	21.4	14.8	12.6	11.8	9.9	9.6	12.0	5.3
South East	21.7	15.0	10.2	7.0	12.0	10.8	9.4	5.0
South South	24.3	16.7	10.9	6.6	9.7	9.5	9.1	6.3
South West	22.1	17.7	13.8	9.6	8.3	8.7	9.1	6.7

Notes: Legend: PWN poor water management; RPG rapid population growth; AI aging infrastructure; CC climate change; IA indiscriminate drilling of boreholes; PC pollution and contamination; RE rapid extraction of water sources.

), underscoring the complex and interconnected nature of water-related issues in the country. The north central region emerges as the most severely affected by poor water management practices, while the broader northern regions exhibit heightened vulnerability to climate change and the pressures of rapid population growth. In contrast, the southern parts of Nigeria are predominantly burdened by infrastructure deficits and pollution-related concerns. These variations suggest that a one-size-fits-all approach would be insufficient, as the spatial distribution of challenges necessitates both coordinated and regionally differentiated policy responses (Figure 12).

A closer examination of the correlation matrix further illuminates the interdependencies among the various factors contributing to water insecurity (Figure 13). A strong positive correlation (r = 0.89) exists between inequitable access to water and indiscriminate drilling, indicating that in regions where water access is limited, there is a higher prevalence of unregulated borehole activities. Similarly, poor water management and aging infrastructure are closely linked (r = 0.71), suggesting that deteriorating infrastructure often coexists with inadequate governance and oversight of water resources.

Interestingly, the analysis also reveals a strong negative correlation between poor water management and pollution (r = −0.77). This finding implies that regions with more effective water management practices tend to experience higher pollution levels, which may be attributed to greater industrial activity and urban development in those areas. Furthermore, moderate correlations were identified between rapid population growth and climate change vulnerability (r = 0.64), as well as between poor water management and inequitable access (r = 0.52). These relationships reinforce the idea that population pressures intensify climate-related risks, and that poor governance often translates into disparities in water distribution.

Region-specific trends further illustrate the heterogeneity of the crisis (Figure 12 and Table 3). The northern regions are disproportionately impacted by climate-induced stresses and demographic pressures, while the southern regions face challenges related to infrastructure inadequacies and environmental degradation. The north central zone, in particular, recorded the highest scores for poor water management, whereas the south west exhibited a relatively balanced distribution of challenges across the various indicators. These findings point to the importance of context-specific interventions, where improvements in one area, such as water governance, could yield cascading benefits for infrastructure resilience and pollution control. In conclusion, the analysis underscores the urgency of integrated and multi-scalar approaches in addressing Nigeria’s freshwater scarcity, advocating for both national coherence and regional sensitivity in policy formulation and implementation.

6.5. Synthesis and Broader Context

The results of this study reinforce the working hypothesis that freshwater scarcity in Nigeria is a chronic, multidimensional issue shaped by a convergence of structural, environmental, and demographic stressors. The near-universal experience of water scarcity among respondents (with 63.7% experiencing it constantly) affirms the systemic nature of water insecurity, consistent with previous studies highlighting infrastructural decay and governance failures as core contributors to Nigeria’s water crisis [1,12].

The reliance on boreholes (53.8%) and purchased water (30.8%) over piped systems reveals a widespread dependence on self-supplied and informal water sources. This reflects findings by [41,62], who document declining investment in centralized infrastructure and the resulting proliferation of decentralized, often unsafe, water access points. These coping strategies are both a symptom and driver of inequality—where wealthier households can afford boreholes or vendor water, poorer communities are relegated to contaminated or distant sources.

The strong recognition by respondents of climate change (76.9%) and population growth (92.3%) as exacerbating factors supports global and regional analyses linking these drivers to freshwater vulnerability [23,92]. The level of climate awareness among participants, especially older adults, suggests a readiness for adaptive interventions. Yet, the persistence of dissatisfaction with water quality (53.9%) and the reported health impacts (69.2%) underscore that awareness has not translated into resilience. This reflects a broader implementation gap in water governance, where technical and policy prescriptions are undermined by fragmented institutions and weak enforcement [80].

Public perception of governance failure as a central driver of water scarcity (with 77% blaming poor water management) further aligns with scholarly critiques of Nigeria’s water sector. Studies [45,91] emphasize the consequences of institutional fragmentation, political neglect, and policy discontinuity—factors echoed by respondents’ concerns in this survey. The convergence of public perception and academic literature suggests a robust foundation for reform advocacy that is both evidence-based and socially legitimate.

In terms of global relevance, the findings resonate with broader discourses on water equity and justice. The observed disparities in access mirror challenges across the Global South, where water scarcity is as much a matter of governance and rights as of physical availability [52,93]. This study contributes to the growing argument that water crises are socially constructed and politically mediated, requiring not just technical fixes but inclusive, rights-based governance.

From a public health lens, the results corroborate WHO data on the health consequences of unsafe water, particularly for vulnerable populations. The finding that over two-thirds of respondents experienced health impacts due to water scarcity underscores the urgent need for integrated water-health policy frameworks, echoing calls in the literature for cross-sectoral collaboration [40,47].

Finally, this study offers practical insights for policy and planning. The near-unanimous public acknowledgment of the demographic stress on water systems strengthens the case for integrating water resource management with urban planning and population policies. Furthermore, high awareness of climate-related drivers suggests an opportunity for bottom-up engagement in climate adaptation, especially if paired with targeted education campaigns for the less-informed segment (23.1%).

6.6. Policy and Practical Recommendations

Future research on freshwater scarcity in Nigeria should prioritize longitudinal studies to monitor evolving patterns in water access, quality, and public perception over time. Such studies would offer insights into the dynamic interplay of climate, demographic, and governance factors. Equally important is the inclusion of rural communities, whose severe water challenges are often overlooked in national assessments. Comparative analyses across Nigerian regions and Sub-Saharan African countries can elucidate both shared and context-specific dimensions of water insecurity and governance. Addressing Nigeria’s freshwater crisis necessitates a multidisciplinary approach that integrates public health, environmental science, and governance to examine the complex interdependencies between water access, disease burden, and community resilience.

Effective mitigation requires strategic investment in water infrastructure, including the rehabilitation of piped networks, borehole maintenance, and decentralized water systems. Climate-resilient infrastructure must be developed to address region-specific vulnerabilities, such as drought-adapted systems in the north and flood mitigation measures in the south. Rainwater harvesting and community-led governance initiatives should be promoted to strengthen local ownership and sustainable practices. Enhanced regulatory frameworks and real-time monitoring systems are essential to ensure water quality and equitable pricing. Public education campaigns, particularly targeting women and youth, are crucial to fostering awareness and behavioral change. These integrated strategies collectively lay the foundation for a more resilient and inclusive water future in Nigeria.

7. Conclusions

This study underscores the multifaceted and systemic nature of freshwater scarcity in Nigeria, driven by rapid population growth, deteriorating infrastructure, weak governance, and the intensifying effects of climate change. Empirical evidence from survey data reveals that water insecurity is pervasive across both urban and rural contexts, producing far-reaching health, economic, and social consequences. Respondents frequently cited population pressure, mismanagement of water resources, and environmental degradation as primary causes, indicating widespread public awareness of the crisis.

Despite Nigeria’s substantial freshwater endowments, the continued dependence on informal water sources and widespread dissatisfaction with water quality point to profound governance and infrastructural deficiencies. This study highlights the pressing need for integrated, climate-resilient interventions that prioritize infrastructure investment, institutional reform, and inclusive community engagement. Technical solutions must be complemented by equitable policies, public education, and multi-sectoral collaboration to achieve lasting improvements.

Future research should extend this work by adopting longitudinal methodologies to capture temporal changes, incorporating underrepresented rural populations, and undertaking comparative regional and cross-national analyses. Interdisciplinary approaches that connect governance, environmental science, and public health will be essential to addressing the structural drivers of water insecurity. Ultimately, ensuring equitable and sustainable access to safe water in Nigeria will require a long-term commitment to reform, resilience, and inclusive development.

8. Limitation

Despite efforts to ensure representativeness, some groups (e.g., remote rural populations) were underrepresented in this study. We recognized that responses may be influenced by social desirability bias or respondents’ limited awareness of certain issues. This study captures data at a single point in time, limiting the ability to establish generalizability and track changes over time.