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Article

Detection and Measurement of Bacterial Contaminants in Stored River Water Consumed in Ekpoma

by
Imokhai T. Tenebe
1,2,*,
Eunice O. Babatunde
3,
Nkpa M. Ogarekpe
4,
Joshua Emakhu
5,
Egbe-Etu Etu
6,
Onome C. Edo
7,
Maxwell Omeje
8 and
Nsikak U. Benson
9
1
University of Chicago Booth School of Business, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
2
Mineta Transportation Institute, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192, USA
3
Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA
4
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cross River State, Calabar 540281, Nigeria
5
Department of Public Health Sciences, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
6
Department of Marketing and Business Analytics, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192, USA
7
Department of Information Systems, Auburn University at Montgomery, Montgomery, AL 36104, USA
8
Department of Physics, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Ota 112104, Nigeria
9
Department of Chemical Sciences, Topfaith University, Mkpatak 530113, Nigeria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2024, 16(18), 2696; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182696
Submission received: 9 August 2024 / Revised: 22 September 2024 / Accepted: 22 September 2024 / Published: 23 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Remediation of Contaminants in Soil and Water)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study was conducted in Ekpoma, a town dependent on rainwater and river water from nearby areas because of a lack of groundwater sources, and the physicochemical and bacteriological (heterotrophic plate count [HPC], total coliform count [TCC], and fecal coliform count [FCC]) properties of 123 stored river water samples grouped into five collection districts (EK1 to EK5). The results were compared with regulatory standards and previous regional studies to identify water quality trends. While most physicochemical properties met drinking water standards, 74% of samples had pH values > 8.5. Twenty-seven samples were fit for drinking, with EK4 having the highest number of bacterio-logically unsuitable samples. Ten bacterial species were identified, with Gram-negative short-rod species such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella typhimurium being predominant. HPC values varied from 367 × 10⁴ to 1320 × 10⁴ CFU/mL, with EK2 (2505 × 10⁴ CFU/mL) and EK5 (1320 × 10⁴ CFU/mL) showing particularly high counts. The TCC values ranged from 1049 × 10⁴ to 4400 × 10⁴ CFU/mL, and the FCC values from 130 × 10⁴ to 800 × 10⁴ CFU/mL, all exceeding WHO limits (1.0 × 102 CFU/mL). Historical data show no improvement in water quality, emphasizing the need for individuals to treat water properly before consumption. The findings provide baseline data for local water authorities and serve as a wake-up call for adequate water treatment, storage interventions, and community education on water security. Additionally, this study offers a practical process for improving the quality of water stored in similar regions.

1. Introduction

The prevalence of water contamination has reduced the availability of clean, potable water in several regions. However, other factors may also contribute to water scarcity, which explains the persistence of water quality and scarcity issues. In some cases, economic constraints cause water scarcity because of insufficient infrastructure to decontaminate the available water [1]. In other cases, water is physically scarce, primarily because of factors such as distance from surface water sources, a low water table, and geological factors that hinder access to groundwater [2].
According to recent reports from the World Health Organization, approximately 1.7 billion individuals consume water from sources contaminated with fecal matter, despite global access to clean and safe water being increased to 74% of the world’s population [3,4]. The availability of groundwater in a region substantially affects socioeconomic development through various mechanisms [5,6]. In regions with restricted groundwater access, socioeconomic development relies on surface water resources. Surface water is utilized for various purposes, such as irrigation, drinking, and industrial processes [7]. Unfortunately, surface water sources have been associated with increased levels of contamination from various sources [8,9]. Through a comprehensive analysis of various countries, surface water configuration changes have resulted in severe waterborne diseases, including cholera, diarrhea, and typhoid fever. These diseases have led to significant challenges and have caused the death of tens of thousands of people. In 2024, Nigeria experienced an outbreak of cholera infections that led to the death of 176 persons and a total of 5951 infected persons, with children under the age of 5 being the most affected, followed by persons aged 25–34. This is a reoccurring situation, with as many as 3604 related deaths recorded in 2021 [10,11,12]. Similarly, 800 cases of waterborne leptospirosis caused by bacteria were reported in Brazil in 2024 after a flooding event [13]. According to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, bacteria are responsible for 69% of waterborne disease outbreaks reported in 2021 [14]. The National Health Service in England reported 3286 waterborne diseases by 2022/2023 [15]. These outbreaks occur annually [16] and show the importance of bacteriological water quality for drinking, bathing, and recreational purposes.
The bacteriological composition is an important factor in evaluating water quality. Pathogens in water have been shown to cause serious health problems in humans and livestock [17]. Many studies have linked the presence of bacterial contamination in water to diseases, many of which have acute and sometimes deadly effects if not treated promptly. Thus, maintaining pathogen-free drinking water is essential for public health safety [18,19]. The goal of keeping drinking water pathogen-free has led water quality regulatory agencies worldwide to establish guidelines that permit a maximum limit of less than 1/100 mL to 10/100 mL of coliform forming units (CFUs) in drinking water sources. However, in many regions, effective water treatment remains inadequate [20,21,22].
Ekpoma, located in Nigeria, suffers from economic and physical water scarcity due to a lack of groundwater and nearby surface water sources, leading to primary dependence on harvested rainwater and a lack of public water infrastructure [23]. In recent years, climate change has influenced the intensity and frequency of rainfall that the town receives during wet seasons. Multiple studies have been conducted to assess the quality of rainwater consumed in the area because of the significant emphasis placed on rainwater collection [20,24,25,26]. However, it is crucial to analyze the water quality sourced explicitly from rivers and consumed within the community. A recent study [27] analyzed the metal composition of river water in Ekpoma to evaluate the potential health risks. Nevertheless, this study did not assess the bacterial state of the water. Other studies conducted in the region have assessed water quality by testing water collected directly from the river and roof catchments before storage, while others have examined the quality of stored water without considering its source [7,25,28]; however, no study has solely tested stored river water that has not been combined with rainwater.
Water stress is a global phenomenon, with some regions experiencing it on a larger scale than others [29]. The water collected and stored for use in these regions must be constantly monitored and inspected for bacterial contamination. It is also important to maintain clean channels of water capture by maintaining the cleanliness of water trucks, water tanks, and other collection devices. This study aimed to evaluate the quality of river-sourced water stored in the region for consumption. It also seeks to examine the extent of treatment required to ensure the suitability of the stored river water for consumption. This will facilitate the proposal of the most suitable interventions to enhance a region’s drinking water quality and provide a process for maintaining the quality of stored water in water-stressed regions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area Description

The sampling sites were located in Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria, extended over latitudes from 6°41′ to 6°5′ and longitudes from 6°00′ to 6°30′ (Figure 1). Although it is situated in the country’s southern region, which is renowned for its lush tropical rainforests, it possesses a distinct geological composition that renders groundwater unattainable [20,30]. The presence of abundant laterite deposits in the Ekpoma area hampers groundwater recharge during rainfall events, thereby impacting the accessibility of groundwater supplies [7,30]. Ekpoma is situated on a partially level-undulating plateau that does not have sufficient aquifers to retain water. The terrain in the region slopes towards the east, and there are no elevated areas that can serve as efficient collection areas for surface rivers. The topography of the Ekpoma region facilitates rapid surface runoff to adjacent areas with a water storage capacity, leading to reduced surface and subsurface water retention [7].
This study involved collecting and analyzing river water distributed to the community. The investigation determined that the Ogedekpe and Ibiekuma Rivers are the primary water sources for commercial vendors in the Ekpoma area. Discussions with indigenous inhabitants in the area yielded information regarding the source and utilization of water in the locality, the methodology of purchasing and selling water, and the corresponding expenses. Ekpoma is located far from rivers, meaning that the town mainly depends on stored water for survival. An estimated 90% of Ekpoma residents have underground reservoirs, which they refer to as wells for water storage [20]. Every year, the dry season lasts until the middle of February, while the wet season starts in March and ends in late November. Throughout the dry season, many households typically obtain water from commercial vendors who source water from rivers in distant communities and distribute it locally [24,25,28]. The price of a water tank in Ekpoma varies from ₦8000 to ₦20,000 (USD 5.21–13.03), depending on the tank size. The Ogedekpe and Ibiekuma Rivers supply water to Ekpoma for commercial sale. The Ibiekuma River passes through the western portion of Ujemen, while the Ogedekpe River is located in the northern portion of Ukhun. The Ambrose Alli University Campus originates from the Ibiekuma River, which is dammed and used as Ekpoma’s main water source during both the rainy and dry seasons. [27,31]. The residents of Ekpoma are primarily involved in crop cultivation and sales, thus emphasizing the need for a water supply to sustain their livelihoods [32].

2.2. Sampling Procedure

In total, 123 samples were collected from distinct sampling locations and grouped into districts (EK1, EK2, EK3, EK4, and EK5) based on the proximity of the storage wells. Samples were collected in triplicate from storage tanks containing only river water. Sampling was conducted in January and February of 2017, as this period was part of the dry season when there was a significant need for rainwater supplementation. The sampling sites were chosen based on their proximity to agricultural activities, urban settlements, and areas with potential pollution sources to assess a broad range of contaminants. Before taking samples, the vials were cleaned using a solution containing 10% nitric acid and distilled water. To minimize the possibility of external contamination, the bottles were cleaned three times using the water intended for collection at each test site. The stored river water was sampled by immersing the sample bottle horizontally into the tank and taking precautions to avoid collecting debris and dead organic matter. At each site, samples of 500 milliliters were collected and stored in containers made of high-density polyethylene. Subsequently, the samples were transported to coolers to ensure a consistent temperature of 4 °C. This technique minimizes any possible variations in the quality of the material before analysis.

2.3. Physicochemical Analysis

The Hanna Edge® Multiparameter EC/TDS/Salinity Meter-HI2030 and Hanna H198130 probes (Hanna Instruments, Smithfield, RI, USA) were used to test water quality parameters at the collection location. These parameters measured were temperature (°C), salinity, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS). The multiparameter device was calibrated using conductivity standards of up to 1413 μS/cm and buffer mixtures with pH values of 4, 7, and 10 before the field visit. All measurements were taken in triplicates, with average values reported. TDS, pH, salinity, and EC were analyzed as per the standard guidelines and procedures described in the US EPA standard methods for water quality analysis [33].

2.4. Bacteriological Analysis

The microbiological examination was conducted using the well-established multiple-tube fermentation technique and the most probable number (MPN) procedure for quantifying bacterial colonies [34,35,36,37]. All media and Identification kits used in the study was purchased from Oxoid UK. Three distinct selective media were used to differentiate bacterial colonies. Eosin methylene blue (EMB) staining was used to detect fecal microbes, organisms that ferment lactose and sucrose, and Gram-negative organisms. Nutrient agar was selected based on its ability to isolate non-fastidious microbes. MacConkey agar was used to differentiate lactose-fermenting microbes. After counting the colonies, appropriate Gram-staining procedures were used to classify the cell walls and identify the bacterial species in the samples. The bacterial species were chosen based on their colony and cellular shape, biochemically characterized using the API 24E test kit, and interpreted according to the protocol for laboratory studies of bacteria-related illnesses [38].

3. Results and Discussion

The Ekpoma region primarily relies on rainwater for its water supply, which is supplemented by water sourced from rivers in nearby cities. In recent years, climate change has influenced the intensity and frequency of rainfall that the town receives during wet seasons. In dry seasons, commercially available water is not particularly reliable because of agricultural and agro-allied activities performed near riverbanks, as well as other human and animal interactions with water bodies [7]. Trucks for transporting water resources are also sources of metals, bacteria, and other inorganic contaminants [27]. Irrespective of the primary water source, most homes in Ekpoma store water in poorly covered tanks built with concrete or plastic materials [32]. It has been stated in earlier studies that prolonged storage of water in tanks could lead to a decline in the quality of the stored water depending on a variety of factors, including unsanitary water handling, uncontrolled changes in temperature, irregular cleaning of tanks, the proximity to septic tanks, and improper treatment of water before storage. Some studies have found that water could have considerably better quality before storage but show an increased microbial presence after storage [39]. Other studies have detected contaminants, such as dust, metals, animals, and insects in storage tanks [40].
All samples were collected from the water storage tanks in the Ekpoma region. In some cases, the tanks were made of PVC and were properly covered; however, approximately 90% of the tanks were underground concrete tanks. Some tanks featured concrete covers with metal covers attached to the hinges, while others were covered with corrugated metal sheets. All concrete tanks had a certain amount of opening that exposed the stored water to pollutants such as dust and bugs (Figure 2). Some tanks were built to cover the ground level, making them susceptible to runoff infiltration [28,32]. For the PVC tanks, exposure to dirt was limited to the periods of refilling when the tanks had to be opened and filled using hoses connected to commercial tanker trucks. The presence of bacteria in water can be attributed to storage conditions, tanker truck cleanliness, and source water quality. Studies have shown that the material used to create storage tanks and the frequency of cleaning the tanks can influence the quality of the stored water [41]. This also relates directly to the conditions of tanker trucks used to transport water from rivers to consumers. Additionally, water stored at temperatures above 15 °C has been shown to promote the growth of coliform bacteria, even in aquatic environments [42,43,44]. As shown in Table 1, the mean temperature of the tested water samples in all districts exceeded 22 °C, indicating that the storage conditions were optimal for bacteria to thrive. Typically, the water stored in these wells is maintained for a long period, and the tanks are rarely emptied. The length of water storage is directly related to bacterial growth in improperly treated water [45]. Because of the lack of treatment and quality control from the water collection phase to the consumption stage, individuals in the region are very susceptible to ingesting pathogens, heavy metals, particulate matter, pesticides, and other chemical substances [46].
Figure 2 shows the conditions for most of the wells in the region. Many homes feature large concrete wells covered with metal sheets or bamboo stems. The lack of proper and sanitary storage conditions increases the likelihood of bacterial contamination in the storage tanks. Furthermore, water is typically withdrawn from storage wells using rubber fetchers exposed to the atmosphere, leading to contamination from dust, particulate matter, and animal droppings. Therefore, the cleanliness of the water storage tank and individual hygiene practices have a direct influence on the amount of bacterial contamination in water. Sampling regions with dense populations, poor sanitation, and industrial pollutants were more likely to have a greater bacterial burden. Furthermore, the sampling size utilized in the study was representative of various locations and clusters in the community, resulting in an accurate representation of water quality and possible health hazards associated with bacterial contamination.

3.1. Physical and Chemical Water Quality

All samples were tested for pH, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS), as specified in Table 1, and the observed values of these parameters were documented for each district. The examination of samples collected from storage tanks indicated a pH range of 8.0 and 9.2. This pH range suggests that the stored water was alkaline. These aspects can be attributed to agricultural practices in the region, the decomposition of organic matter, and the impact of geology on river water quality. Globally, there is a connection between river water alkalinity and increasing pollution levels. Alkaline water promotes the development of algal blooms and can create difficulties in water treatment processes. Ammonia poisoning may occur as rivers become increasingly alkaline, presenting a risk to aquatic and terrestrial animals [47,48]. The samples were analyzed and found to have total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations ranging from 0.06 to 89.6 milligrams per liter (mg/L). A low TDS level implies a scarcity of dissolved minerals. This does not have a negative effect on the bacteriological quality of drinking water, except for the aesthetic aspect of producing a loss of flavor, thus tasting bland. The TDS values of the samples obtained in this study were noticeably below the regulation threshold set by the World Health Organization (500 mg/L). Inadequate amounts of TDS may also hinder the growth of aquatic species [49].
The salinity of the samples from freshwater sources varied between 0 and 0.4 mg/L, which fell within the expected range for water originating from a river. The recorded electrical conductivity (EC) values varied between 0.15 and 227.3 μS/cm, indicating varying levels of mineral concentration across the four test sites. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set the EC standard for drinking water to 400 μS/cm. All the samples evaluated were within this range. For river water, the EC values range from 0 to 1500 μS/cm. The lower the EC value, the fewer mineral impurities it may contain, and thus, would support the growth of plants and aquatic species. However, low EC values did not directly indicate the absence of harmful substances. The temperature varies between 27.7 and 29.1 °C across the districts, with all districts having samples with mean temperatures that exceed the WHO-prescribed maximum of 22 °C. Although the temperature of the water samples does not directly impact human health, it provides an environment that may support the proliferation of bacteria in storage tanks. Overall, the river water samples satisfied the required standards for EC, pH, salinity, and TDS levels, as determined by analyzing the physical characteristics. On the other hand, temperature needs to be closely monitored if water is to be stored for a long time. Additionally, water should be aerated before use to improve the aesthetic quality.

3.2. Bacterial Count and Occurrence

3.2.1. Heterotrophic Bacterial Counts

The bacterial load in a water source has been shown to affect general water quality [50]. The World Health Organization (WHO) provides guidelines for monitoring water quality, including HPC, but it does not specify a numerical limit for HPC in drinking water. Instead, the WHO considers HPC an indication of overall water quality and system management rather than a direct assessment of health risks. HPC is used to estimate the number of heterotrophic bacteria in water, including non-pathogenic microorganisms found in water distribution networks. The WHO recommends utilizing HPC for operational monitoring to ensure that water treatment processes such as disinfection and filtration work effectively. A substantial increase in HPC may indicate a malfunction in the water treatment process or contamination of the distribution system. HPC levels in well-maintained and properly run water systems are normally low and frequently fall below the USEPA limit of 500.0 CFU/mL. HPC levels above this threshold usually indicate deteriorating water quality and biofilm growth. To accurately determine health risks, HPC data should be combined with other microbiological indicators.
The mean bacterial counts reported for all the tested water samples are outlined in Table 2. The mean heterotrophic plate count (HPC) varied from 367 × 104 to 1320 × 104 CFU/mL in the five sampling districts. The HPC results represent the overall count of the living bacteria in a sample. There was notable variation in HPC levels among the five districts. The HPC values in samples from the EK2 district (2505 × 104 CFU/mL) and EK5 district (1320 × 104 CFU/mL) showed considerably elevated counts, suggesting a possible heightened level of microbial populations. However, EK1 (451 × 104 CFU/mL) and EK4 (367 × 104 CFU/mL) had comparatively lower HPC values, indicating an overall decreased bacterial burden. This difference may indicate that the rivers supplying the EK2 and EK5 sectors are more significantly affected by pollution. This could also be linked to contamination in the tanks used for transporting and selling water to these areas. Considering that multiple wells were sampled in each district, the higher concentration of bacteria in one district compared with another cannot be attributed solely to storage practices unless one region has implemented improved storage methods, such as using covered PVC tanks for water storage instead of deep concrete wells that are difficult to clean and have insufficient coverage [35]. The high levels in the analyzed samples imply a substantial risk of waterborne diseases in humans and animals if the water is not adequately treated before consumption. Heterotrophic bacteria are abundant in the environment as they are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter. However, they are parasitic and can cause several diseases in humans and animals. Water systems affected by high nutrient concentrations typically have high HPC values. Heterotrophic bacteria can be removed from drinking water sources via disinfection with chlorine, ultraviolet light, or distillation. In the case of Ekpoma, it would be advisable to treat water in batches by applying coagulation and filtration followed by chlorination to remove heterotrophic bacteria and prevent opportunistic infections that can affect vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, children, and immunocompromised persons [51].

3.2.2. Total Coliform and Fecal Coliform Counts

The WHO and USEPA established firm criteria for coliform bacteria in drinking water (0.0 CFU/ML), including total coliforms and fecal coliforms, to ensure its safety for consumption. These bacteria are used as indicators of contamination and the potential presence of pathogenic microorganisms. The mean values of the total coliform count (TCC) observed for each district are presented in Table 2. The observed MPN values for a 100 mL sample range from 1 to 150, with a considerable proportion of samples having MPN values below 45. The mean TCC values across the districts varied from 1049 × 104 to 4400 × 104 CFU/mL, whereas the FCC values ranged from 130 × 104 to 800 × 104 CFU/mL. These levels were well above the World Health Organization (WHO) limits of 0 CFU/mL. The TCC and FCC values indicate the presence of coliform bacteria, including those associated with fecal contamination. The elevated concentrations of TCC detected in all districts indicate a greater probability of fecal contamination. The magnitude of pollution can be attributed directly to the principal water source, specifically the rivers and human activities along the floodplain and riverbanks. Fecal contamination can also occur when animals and water bodies come into contact, such as when grazing cattle or avian excrement pollutes water. There is also the possibility of contamination occurring during the storage phase because of poor storage conditions and improperly built storage wells. Considering that a substantial portion of the population depends on stored river water for sustenance, especially during drought, this poses a considerable health hazard. The water samples were deemed unfit for immediate consumption because of the presence of culturable coliforms, which suggests that the coliform concentration in the water exceeded the permissible limit. The continuous consumption of fecal bacteria typically results in infection by pathogens that cause illness, some of which could be potentially fatal if not treated promptly [52]. These findings emphasize the urgent need for targeted efforts and improved sanitation measures to protect public health and ensure access to safe and uncontaminated drinking water.
Ten (10) bacteria species were identified in the samples tested, as shown in Figure 3. The results of this study align with those of other studies conducted in the Ekpoma region to determine bacterial water quality. These studies detected the presence of organisms such as Staphylococcus spp., Klebsiella spp., Enterococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Yersinia spp., Escherichia coli [25,28,53]. One study [7] linked surface water quality to hospital records from ten medical centers, showing that waterborne illnesses are prevalent in the community. Other studies have also confirmed a direct relationship between bacteria in drinking water supplies and disease prevalence in affected communities. Some of the cases examined have life-threatening diseases, as well as the chronic effect of bacterial ingestion on human organs [54,55,56,57].
Table 3 details the cell shape of the bacteria colonies, the bacterial species detected, and their prevalence in stored river water samples from different districts in Ekpoma. Only the EK1 (38%) and EK4 (13%) districts had samples fit for drinking. Overall, the results reveal significant bacterial contamination across all districts, with 21.9% of water samples being unfit for drinking. Of the ten bacteria species identified in the samples, four were determined to be Gram-positive bacteria. This group of bacteria is known to have thick cell walls that can protect them from antibiotics [58]. One of these bacteria species, Enterococcus faecalis, is found naturally in soil, water, and the intestines and tends to be harmless. However, ingestion can cause food poisoning and serious respiratory problems, and when these organisms come in contact with other parts of the human body, it can result in life-threatening infections. They exhibit a high tolerance for hot, salty, or acidic environments. When one person is affected, infections commonly spread in hospitals. Bacteria can enter into the blood circulation, urine, or surgical wounds during surgery. From there, it may spread to other areas and cause more serious infections, such as sepsis, endocarditis, and meningitis. Drug-resistant E. faecalis strains have multiplied in recent years [58,59]. Because of poor hygiene, infections with E. faecalis can transfer between individuals. Since these germs are derived from feces, those who do not wash their hands after using the toilet face the danger of transmitting the virus. Bacteria may spread through food items and surfaces such as phones, doorknobs, and computer keyboards. Hospitals are often the breeding ground for E. faecalis if medical personnel do not wash their hands. E. faecalis may also be present in catheters, dialysis ports, and other medical equipment that has not been thoroughly cleaned. Consequently, individuals undergoing cancer treatments, organ transplants, or renal dialysis are more susceptible to infections resulting from immunosuppression or contamination [60].
Micrococcus luteus, another Gram-positive bacterium identified in the sample, is a common element of the natural microbiota of human skin and may be found in soil, dust, water, and air. When M. luteus breaks down the components of sweat, it releases odors. M. luteus is thought to be an opportunistic pathogen with the capacity to spread infections that begin in medical facilities. In clinical settings, M. luteus is occasionally mistaken for Staphylococcus aureus, which can result in cutaneous infections. Improper handwashing may lead to the spread of this bacterium. Septic shock can occur in immunocompromised individuals owing to M. luteus. These bacteria also colonize the human mouth, mucosae, oropharynx, and upper respiratory tract. This bacterium can break down contaminants, such as petroleum, and can tolerate extremely high UV radiation dosages. Clostridium perfringens, also detected in the samples, have spores that create toxins that are harmful to humans. The contamination of food or drinking water with bacteria can result in gastrointestinal problems. Bacillus subtilis is commonly used for enzyme formation in many research processes [61]. It can be found naturally in water, soil, air, decaying plants, and the human gut; however, it can also be harmful when ingested in drinking water and causes infections such as septicemia, bacteremia, and pneumonia in people with weakened immune systems. Repeated exposure to extracellular toxins created by bacteria is also known to cause allergies and sensitivity issues [62,63,64].
Similarly, Gram-negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Yersinia pestis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were found in the water samples. These organisms are associated with public health concerns and are becoming increasingly challenging to treat owing to their antimicrobial resistance. They occur naturally in soil, air, and water and can also be found in the human intestine. Many Gram-negative bacteria are pathogenic and can cause illnesses that affect the liver, eyes, urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, and even the central nervous system in humans. Some of these diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and plague, are life-threatening and can spread rapidly if not controlled properly.
In summary, the illnesses caused by these organisms are often difficult to treat with antibiotics. Hospitals are also notable hotspots for bacterial transmission when infected individuals are treated. Additionally, washing and cleaning surfaces with contaminated water may contribute to the spread of diseases in a community. It has been noted that UV light sterilization is insufficient to eliminate some bacteria species during water treatment. Gram-negative bacteria have also been known to survive stressful situations such as cold, chlorination, and starvation by entering a viable but not culturable state. Some organisms in this state retain their pathogenic potential, thus posing a risk to human health if not completely removed [65,66,67]. Hence, a combined and thorough treatment approach is recommended before water is consumed.

3.3. Trend of Water Quality Studies in Ekpoma, Nigeria

Upon comparing tests conducted in the region on water intended for consumption, a significant prevalence of bacterial contamination was observed regardless of the water source being analyzed. Some studies have examined packaged water, while others have directly tested water from nearby rivers and collected precipitation. Nevertheless, there is a disparity in the actual levels of substances and concentrations of harmful metals across various origins. These characteristics include storage conditions, proximity to water sources, and environmental conditions. The absence of adequate and uncontaminated water supplies in areas such as Ekpoma, Nigeria, is a substantial problem that gives rise to severe health concerns due to waterborne diseases. Multiple studies have been conducted in this region to evaluate the physical, chemical, and microbiological properties of water sources, providing valuable data on pollution levels and potential health risks. These studies provide vital insights into the difficulties faced by communities and the measures that must be taken to address them.
Turay et al. [28] conducted a study that primarily focused on water reservoirs. This study utilized a straightforward random sampling strategy to gather water samples from 20 distinct reservoir locations. The bacteriological profile of the samples was determined using laboratory studies that employed the total viable count and the most probable number approaches. This study’s findings revealed that water quality was impaired because of increased concentrations of inorganic compounds and indicator bacteria. The most common types of bacteria found in the water samples were fecal bacteria, specifically Clostridium, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus faecalis. The authors stressed the vital significance of individuals embracing cost-effective water purification technology and asked the government to guarantee rapid potable water provision. Jemikalajah [25] conducted a study that evaluated the safety of different water sources, including rivers, reservoir wells, boreholes, and sachet water. The findings of this study revealed that sachet water was the only feasible option for drinking water, as alternative sources were polluted with bacteria. River water was found to have the highest average total viable count (TVC) of 4.1 × 106 CFU/mL on nutrient agar. The concentrations of bacteria in the reservoir well, tanks, boreholes, and sachet water were 1.5 × 106 CFU/mL, 7.5 × 105 CFU/mL, 3.2 × 105 CFU/mL, and 1.9 × 10 CFU/mL, respectively. These results are listed in descending order. The reservoir tank had the greatest average bacterial load, averaging 4.1 × 103 CFU/mL. MacConkey agar showed other sources of bacterial presence, namely the reservoir wells, boreholes, river water, and sachet water. The corresponding bacterial counts were 1.3 × 103 CFU/mL, 3.7 × 102, and 0.0 CFU/mL, respectively. The average MPN for the estimated total coliform levels was highest in the river water (140) and lowest in the sachet water (0.4). The reservoir wells had the highest average MPN for fecal Escherichia coli count, with a mean value of 31.
Conversely, sachet water had the lowest average count, with a value of 0.0. This study emphasized the necessity of applying strategies to reduce the abundance of microorganisms in household water sources [25]. Beshiru et al. [68] conducted a study that exclusively examined the surface water quality of five rivers in the Edo-North region. This study emphasized the poor quality of river water, particularly during droughts. This study investigated the physicochemical characteristics and water quality indices of rivers in areas that are utilized for domestic and drinking purposes. The assertion was that river water must undergo purification before it is used for drinking or other domestic applications. Osarenmwinda and Idaehor [20] collected samples from ten water wells in the area and detected the existence of bacterial pathogens, making the water unfit for human consumption due to contamination.
The well water samples were subjected to microbiological investigation, which revealed that Escherichia coli, a bacterial pathogen, was the most prevalent, being present in 60% of the samples. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus were present in an equal proportion of 50%) in the samples. Salmonella sp. was identified in 30% of the samples, whereas Shigella sp. and Vibrio cholerae were found in 40% and 30% of the samples, respectively. Proteus p. was detected in 50% of the samples. This study emphasizes the need to maintain cleanliness in the area surrounding wells and follow good personal hygiene practices to prevent contamination. In 2020, Tenebe et al. [35] conducted a study that assessed the microbiological characteristics of rainwater collected from storage facilities. Ten distinct bacterial species were detected in these samples. Following analysis of the samples, the following bacteria were found E. Coli and Micrococcus luteum (30.2%), Bacillus subtilis (14.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (12.96%), Salmonella typhimurium (11.1%), Yersinia pestis (7.41%), Proteus vulgaris (3.7%), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus faecalis (1.85%). These findings highlight the importance of using methods such as chlorination and boiling to avoid or reduce contamination. Various ailments plague Ekpoma, such as cholera, malaria, ringworms, dysentery, typhoid fever, gastroenteritis, and trachoma, causing ongoing public health issues in the city. These disorders can be attributed to the use of contaminated water [7].
While each study provides valuable insights into water quality concerns in Ekpoma, they differ in terms of emphasis, research methods, and recommendations. Collectively, these investigations revealed a persistent trend of inaction regarding the water quality in the region. Bacterial contamination was prevalent, regardless of the water source. Hence, it is imperative to improve water quality in the region and ensure the community’s access to potable water. Government initiatives and business collaborations focused on water purification, public health campaigns on water sanitation, and community endeavors to preserve uncontaminated water supplies are crucial strategies for effectively addressing these issues. By addressing these issues, the general well-being and health of the Ekpoma population can be enhanced significantly.

3.4. Recommended Approach for Water Quality Improvement

Studies conducted over time have shown that overall water quality has not improved. In addition to bacterial contamination, toxic metals have been detected in water. In many cases, consumers drink water directly from storage wells, with minimal treatment. The same amount of water is used for cooking in restaurants, agricultural irrigation, and bathing. The widespread use of contaminated water poses a significant risk to communities. Although some people resort to boiling or chlorination as a stand-alone treatment method, there is a likelihood that the water is not boiled properly or that the right dosage of chlorine is not applied to eliminate bacteria properly. Outbreaks of drinking water illness are often attributed to several factors, including insufficient disinfection, poor water infrastructure, and temperatures that promote microbiological growth. It might be challenging to identify the primary source of an outbreak and stop an epidemic after it has started. For this reason, it is best to improve the system from the source to the tap. Public health monitoring is crucial to identify outbreaks linked to drinking water exposure and track trends in waterborne illnesses. In both medical and non-medical settings, the prevention of primary outbreaks via biofilm reduction and water management is still essential. Public health initiatives, regulations, and water management programs can decrease the risk of exposure to chemicals, toxins, and pathogens in drinking water. The results of this study may be used by regulators, public health agencies, and partners in the drinking water industry to direct programs for outbreak response and prevention, detect new dangers of waterborne diseases, and support drinking water regulation. Public health monitoring and other preventative measures can help to improve home and public water management practices and minimize the occurrence of waterborne diseases.
In water-stressed regions, such as Ekpoma, where long-term storage of water is essential, ensuring safe drinking water storage requires a process that addresses possible contamination while utilizing local resources. The first step is to improve the collection system by ensuring that clean, durable, and well-maintained water trucks and their respective accessories are used in combination with filters at the collection point to prevent debris and sediments from entering water transport tanks. After collection, water should be stored in covered tanks made of food-safe materials such as polyethylene or concrete to prevent the leaching of harmful chemicals and other contaminants.
A piping system for drawing water from storage wells and passing it through a basic filtering system can be installed. River water is more likely to contain microbial contaminants and sediments; thus, the filtering system may incorporate activated carbon and mesh filters to minimize turbidity, organic matter, and possible pollutants from agricultural runoff. After filtering, chlorine disinfection is a low-cost and efficient method for eradicating harmful microorganisms. Solar disinfection, which entails storing water in transparent containers and exposing it to sunlight for a day, is an inexpensive option. If possible, UV treatment units can be added to the system to improve bacteriological quality further. Storage tanks should be designed to account for variations in water availability, and regular inspection and cleaning of storage tanks are necessary to remove biofilms, algae, or sediments.
Water quality monitoring is critical, especially when river water is subjected to external contaminants. To ensure water safety, the use of basic, low-cost pH, turbidity, and microbiological contamination testing kits is recommended. In cases where contamination is identified, further treatment steps, such as boiling or adding chlorine tablets, may be necessary before consumption. Community education and engagement are also vital. Residents may be advised on regular tank maintenance and safe water-handling techniques to reduce contamination concerns significantly. Furthermore, establishing a community-based method for reporting water-quality concerns and promoting communal water safety can help with overall management. It is vital to periodically monitor water quality, regardless of the implementation of treatment processes.

4. Conclusions

A plethora of pathogenic bacteria has been discovered in the drinking water of the Ekpoma region, posing a significant health risk. The microorganisms identified in this study included Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Proteus vulgaris, Micrococcus luteum, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens and Yersinia pestis. The results of this study highlight a critical public health concern, given that over 70% of the stored water samples analyzed were bacteriologically unfit for human consumption. This poses a serious threat to the community in Ekpoma, where reliance on untreated stored water persists. Given the lack of reliable alternative water sources, addressing this issue is crucial for preventing waterborne diseases and ensuring safe drinking water in the region. Upon comparing the results of this study with those of earlier studies conducted in the same region, it becomes apparent that bacterial contamination in various water sources continues to be widespread over a prolonged period. Irrespective of fluctuating bacterial numbers, all investigations suggest that the results surpass the regulatory thresholds for bacteria in drinking water. The water used for cooking in residential dwellings, public canteens, agricultural irrigation, and livestock husbandry in the Ekpoma region was sourced from a shared location. Therefore, bacterial contamination is a significant and extensive threat to disease outbreaks. Prior research has endorsed the use of optimal methodologies, endeavors to safeguard water resources, and government involvement. Nevertheless, there seems to be a lack of public participation safety. It is recommended that individuals make extra efforts to protect their well-being in the current situation and push for better access to clean and safe water in the community. Additionally, stakeholders can implement the treatment approaches suggested in this article to reduce the risk of ingesting contaminated water, ultimately protecting public health. Future studies could benefit from control experiments and more rigorous statistical approaches to enhance the robustness of their results.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.T.T. and E.O.B.; Data curation, E.O.B., N.M.O. and E.-E.E.; Formal analysis, E.O.B., N.M.O. and E.-E.E.; Investigation, N.M.O., J.E., O.C.E. and M.O.; Methodology, I.T.T. and N.M.O.; Project administration, N.U.B.; Supervision, N.U.B.; Validation, I.T.T. and N.U.B.; Visualization, E.-E.E. and M.O.; Writing—original draft, I.T.T. and E.O.B.; Writing—review and editing, I.T.T., J.E., O.C.E. and M.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data are included in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Water 16 02696 g001
Figure 1. Map showing sampling sites in Ekpoma (adapted from [27]).
Figure 1. Map showing sampling sites in Ekpoma (adapted from [27]).
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Water 16 02696 g002
Figure 2. A typical water storage well in Ekpoma.
Figure 2. A typical water storage well in Ekpoma.
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Figure 3. Bacterial species occurring in stored river water samples from different districts.
Figure 3. Bacterial species occurring in stored river water samples from different districts.
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Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Stored River Water Samples.
Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Stored River Water Samples.
District IDParametersMeanStandard
Deviation		Min.Max.WHO
Guidelines
EK 1pH8.70.48.09.26.5–8.5
EC (μS/cm)70.558.60.1195.3≤400 μS/cm
TEMP (°C)27.81.425.530.310–22 °C
TDS (mg/L)35.229.40.197.9≤500 mg/L
EK 2pH8.90.28.79.16.5–8.5
EC (μS/cm)77.558.028.6161.7≤400 μS/cm
TEMP (°C)28.11.526.430.010–22 °C
TDS (mg/L)38.829.014.380.9≤500 mg/L
EK 3pH8.40.58.19.06.5–8.5
EC (μS/cm)82.3125.90.4227.3≤400 μS/cm
TEMP (°C)29.10.828.229.510–22 °C
TDS (mg/L)41.263.10.2113.8≤500 mg/L
EK 4pH8.80.38.19.26.5–8.5
EC (μS/cm)41.347.30.1179.3≤400 μS/cm
TEMP (°C)28.61.226.230.210–22 °C
TDS (mg/L)20.623.70.189.4≤500 mg/L
EK 5pH9.10.09.19.16.5–8.5
EC (μS/cm)27.70.027.727.7≤400 μS/cm
TEMP (°C)27.70.027.727.710–22 °C
TDS (mg/L)13.90.013.913.9≤500 mg/L
Table 2. Mean values of enumerated bacteria in stored river water samples.
Table 2. Mean values of enumerated bacteria in stored river water samples.
Regulatory
Guidelines		 HPC
(CFU/100 mL) 		TCC
(CFU/100 mL) 		FCC
(CFU/100 mL)
USEPA 500.00.00.0
WHO No limit set0.00.0
DistrictTotal Samples
Collected
EK154451.1 × 1041049.4 × 104130.0 × 104
EK2122505.0 × 1043670.0 × 104330.0 × 104
EK39380.0 × 1041660.0 × 104-
EK445367.1 × 1042268.6 × 104800.0 × 104
EK531320.0 × 1044400.0 × 104-
Table 3. The colonial appearance, bacteria detected, and bacterial prevalence from stored river water in Ekpoma.
Table 3. The colonial appearance, bacteria detected, and bacterial prevalence from stored river water in Ekpoma.
District IDEK 1EK 2EK 3EK 4EK 5
Total Samples54129453
Fit for Drinking210060
Bacteria SpeciesColonial AppearanceUnfit for Drinking33129393
Escherichia coliGram −ve short rods YesYesYesYesNo
Klebsiella pneumoniaeGram −ve short rods YesNoNoYesYes
Salmonella typhimuriumGram −ve short rods YesYesNoYesNo
Micrococcus luteumGram +ve long cocci YesNoNoYesNo
Proteus vulgarisGram −ve short rods NoNoNoYesNo
Yersinia pestisGram −ve short rods NoNoYesNoNo
Bacillus subtilisGram +ve long rods YesNoYesNoNo
Clostridium perfringensGram +ve long rods YesNoNoYesNo
Pseudomonas aeruginosaGram −ve short rods YesNoNoNoNo
Enterococcus faecalisGram +ve long cocci YesNoNoNoNo
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Tenebe, I.T.; Babatunde, E.O.; Ogarekpe, N.M.; Emakhu, J.; Etu, E.-E.; Edo, O.C.; Omeje, M.; Benson, N.U. Detection and Measurement of Bacterial Contaminants in Stored River Water Consumed in Ekpoma. Water 2024, 16, 2696. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182696

AMA Style

Tenebe IT, Babatunde EO, Ogarekpe NM, Emakhu J, Etu E-E, Edo OC, Omeje M, Benson NU. Detection and Measurement of Bacterial Contaminants in Stored River Water Consumed in Ekpoma. Water. 2024; 16(18):2696. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182696

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tenebe, Imokhai T., Eunice O. Babatunde, Nkpa M. Ogarekpe, Joshua Emakhu, Egbe-Etu Etu, Onome C. Edo, Maxwell Omeje, and Nsikak U. Benson. 2024. "Detection and Measurement of Bacterial Contaminants in Stored River Water Consumed in Ekpoma" Water 16, no. 18: 2696. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182696

APA Style

Tenebe, I. T., Babatunde, E. O., Ogarekpe, N. M., Emakhu, J., Etu, E. -E., Edo, O. C., Omeje, M., & Benson, N. U. (2024). Detection and Measurement of Bacterial Contaminants in Stored River Water Consumed in Ekpoma. Water, 16(18), 2696. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182696

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