Numerical Simulation and Characterization of the Hydromechanical Alterations at the Zafarraya Fault Due to the 1884 Andalusia Earthquake (Spain)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To describe and analyze the hydrogeological phenomena induced by the Andalusian earthquake of 1884.
- To establish a hydromechanical conceptual model of the Zafarraya Fault that explains and allows understanding of these hydrological alterations.
- To implement a hydromechanical numerical model to simulate the conditions of the massif surrounding the main fault during the pre-seismic and co-seismic phases. The results obtained from this simulation allow us to understand and explain the features and effects of the 1884 major event.
- To perform both matching and calibration of both models.
2. Methodology
- Description of the hydrological alterations due to the 1884 Andalusia earthquake according to historical surveys.
- Based on bibliographic background, the next stage seeks the setup of the geological and hydrogeological framework and the seismotectonic characterization of the Zafarraya Fault surrounding area.
- Setup of a preliminary hydromechanical conceptual model.
3. The Zafarraya Fault Geology and Hydrological Phenomena Induced by Andalusia Earthquake
3.1. The Zafarraya Fault: Tectonic Context, Displacement, and Recurrence Periods
- A.
- Sierra Gorda Karstic Aquifer: it holds a free aquifer with Jurassic limestone and dolomite and a Keuper impermeable bottom. The carbonate formations are more than 1000 m thick. The average rainfall in the area is 840 mm. Its hydrogeological parameters are: transmissivity T = 40 − 16.4 m2; storage coefficient S = 1.5%.
- B.
- Polje of Zafarraya detrital aquifer: made up of Miocene and Quaternary infill sediments from the basin, having a maximum thickness of 280 m. The upper Miocene and Quaternary sediments are about 60 m thick and include sandy and gravel alluvial deposits with clay intercalations. In general, this upper detrital aquifer feeds the limestone aquifer underneath, but sometimes the reverse happens due to heavy rains that flood the polje. The flow is directed mainly towards the NE, with a gradient of 0.085–1.7%. This aquifer is heavily exploited, with 400 wells, and the water table is shallow, less than 15 m deep.
3.2. Hydrogeological Alterations: Types and Geographical Distribution
4. Geological Model of the Zafarraya Fault and Numerical Model Setup
4.1. 2D Geological Model of the Fault
4.2. Coupled Physics Included in the Simulation Model
- is the fluid (water) density.
- is the constrained specific storage coefficient, which represents the volume of water either extracted from or added to storage in a confined aquifer per unit area of aquifer per unit decline or increase in the piezometric head. This unknown coefficient needs to be estimated through a model calibration. When the solid phase consists of a single constituent, the constrained specific storage becomes [40,41]:
- is the intrinsic permeability of the porous medium .
- is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
- is the Cauchy stress tensor.
- is the bulk rock density, and the dry rock density.
- is the gravity acceleration vector.
4.3. Numerical Model Setup
4.4. The Fault Frictional Model
- is the shear resistance at any fault point.
- is the cohesion term of the resistance, neglected in this study.
- We include a radiation damping term that acts as a velocity-dependent cohesion, , in the definition of fault strength to resolve the rupture dynamics. Then we consider a damping factor , with being the shear wave speed. The phenomenon of radiation damping accounts for the volumetric dissipation mechanism of seismic waves in the definition of the friction resistance of the fault [39,43,44].
- is the friction coefficient of the contact.
- is the effective contact (normal) pressure at any fault contact point. It is given by , with being the contact pressure between the fault edges (compressive pressures are positive). Its value is chosen as the maximum on both sides of the fault, [45]. The fault remains locked when the shear stress acting on the fault, , is lower than the frictional strength, ; otherwise, it slips.
4.5. The Ground Model and Properties
4.6. The Finite Element Domain
5. Results and Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Density (Ton/m3) | Effective Porosity (%) | Permeability (m/s) | Depth of Water Table (m) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2.00 | 13 | 1 m/day | <15 |
2 | 2.00 | 10 | 10−4–10−7 | - |
3 | 2.00 | 0.5 | 10−6 | - |
4 | - | 0.5 | - | - |
5 | 2.67 | 1.5 | 10−3–10−9 | - |
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Mudarra-Hernández, M.; Mosquera-Feijoo, J.C.; Sanz-Pérez, E. Numerical Simulation and Characterization of the Hydromechanical Alterations at the Zafarraya Fault Due to the 1884 Andalusia Earthquake (Spain). Water 2023, 15, 850. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050850
Mudarra-Hernández M, Mosquera-Feijoo JC, Sanz-Pérez E. Numerical Simulation and Characterization of the Hydromechanical Alterations at the Zafarraya Fault Due to the 1884 Andalusia Earthquake (Spain). Water. 2023; 15(5):850. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050850
Chicago/Turabian StyleMudarra-Hernández, Manuel, Juan Carlos Mosquera-Feijoo, and Eugenio Sanz-Pérez. 2023. "Numerical Simulation and Characterization of the Hydromechanical Alterations at the Zafarraya Fault Due to the 1884 Andalusia Earthquake (Spain)" Water 15, no. 5: 850. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050850
APA StyleMudarra-Hernández, M., Mosquera-Feijoo, J. C., & Sanz-Pérez, E. (2023). Numerical Simulation and Characterization of the Hydromechanical Alterations at the Zafarraya Fault Due to the 1884 Andalusia Earthquake (Spain). Water, 15(5), 850. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050850