A Review of Analytical Methods and Technologies for Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Carbon Number | Type | Carboxylate Ion (or Acid Form) | Sulfonate Ion (or Acid Form) |
---|---|---|---|
4 | Short chain | Perfluorobutanoate (PFBA) | Perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS) |
5 | Perfluoropentanoate (PFPeA) | Perfluoropentane sulfonate (PFPeS) | |
6 | Perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA) | Perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) | |
7 | Perfluoroheptanoate (PFHpA) | Perfluoroheptane sulfonate (PFHpS) | |
8 | Long chain | Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) | Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) |
9 | Perfluorononanoate (PFNA) | Perfluorononane sulfonate (PFNS) | |
10 | Perfluorodecanoate (PFDA) | Perfluorodecane sulfonate (PFDS) |
2. Method
2.1. Semi-Systematic Literature Review
2.2. Sources of Information and Screening Process
2.3. Publication Distribution
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. PFAS Monitoring Methodologies and Technologies
3.2. Effectiveness of the Chromatographic Technique
3.2.1. Types of PFASs Detected
3.2.2. Elimination of Background Levels and/or Pre-Treatment
3.2.3. Limit of Detection
3.2.4. Analysis of Various Types of Samples
- Pre-treatment of soil samples should be focused on capturing PFAS with diverse properties, especially hydrophobic compounds, and cationic, anionic, or zwitterionic species [54].
- Background interferences should be cleaned up, as some recoveries can exceed 100%, showing high background interference [20].
3.3. Effectiveness of Alternative Methods and Techniques
3.3.1. Types of PFAS Detected
3.3.2. Elimination of Background Levels and/or Pre-Treatment
3.3.3. Limit of Detection
3.3.4. Analysis of Various Types of Samples
3.4. Effectiveness of Emerging Sensor-Based Technology
3.4.1. Types of PFAS Detected
3.4.2. Elimination of Background Levels and/or Pre-Treatment
3.4.3. Limit of Detection
3.4.4. Analysis of Various Types of Samples
Item | Type of PFAS | Samples | (LOD) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chromatographic Technique | ||||
Multiple monolithic fibre solid-phase microextraction (MMF-SPME)-HPLC-MS/MS | PFCA | Tap water, river water, wastewater, and milk samples | 0.4–12.1 ng/L | [39,95] |
Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME)- HPLC-MS/MS | Medium- and long-chain PFASs (CF2 > 5) | Water and urine samples | 0.6–8.7 ng/L | [20,96] |
Vortex-assisted liquid–liquid microextraction (VALLME)-LC-MS | PFOS | Tap, river, and well water samples | 1.6 ng/L | [54,97] |
Ice concentration linked with extractive stirrer (ICECLES)-HPLC-MS/MS | PFHxA, PFOA, and PFHpA | Drinking water samples | 0.05–0.3 ng/L | [98] |
Acrodisc Filter multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)-UPLC-MS/MS | PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, and PFBS | Tap water and surface water samples | 7–40 ng/mL | [99] |
SPE extraction- UHPLC/(-) ESI-MS/MS | PFCAs, PFSAs, and perfluoro ethers | Surface water samples | 0.48–1.68 ng/L | [100] |
Sensor-based technology | ||||
Biosensor, Colorimetric, Electrochemical, Electrochemiluminescence Fluorescence Nanoparticle Optical Fibre Photoelectrochemical Spectrophotometric | PFOS, PFOA, PFBS, GenX, 6:2 FTS, and others | Mostly water samples | Below 10 ng/L but mostly by incorporating chromatographic techniques | [20,65,66,85,94] |
Alternative methods and techniques | ||||
Total oxidisable precursor (TOP) assays | Total oxidisable PFASs | Water, surface/subsurface soil and groundwater samples | 0.5–7.9 ng/L | [2,6,20,54,64,67,74,78,101,102,103,104] |
Fluorine-19 nuclear magnetic resonance (19F NMR) spectroscopy | Total organic fluorine (TOF) and total fluorine (TF, organic and inorganic) | [2,20,54,102] | ||
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) | Fluorine-specific detection of PFASs after LC separation | [102] | ||
Continuum source molecular absorption spectroscopy (CS-MAS) | Total fluorine | [102] | ||
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) | Fluorine/organic fluorine detection | [20] | ||
Particle-induced gamma-ray emission (PIGE) spectroscopy | Total fluorine measurements of HFPO-DA, PFBS, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHxS, PFHpA, PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, and PFDA | Drinking water samples | <50 ng/L | [2,20,54,105] |
3D-printed cone spray ionisation (3D-PCSI) | PFBA, PFHpA, PFOA, 6:2FTS, PFNA, PFOSA, PFOS, PFDA, PFUdA, PFDoA, and PFTrDA | Soil and sediment matrices | 100 ng/L | [76] |
High-resolution graphite furnace continuum source molecular absorption spectrometry (HR GF-MAS) | Total fluorine measurement of PFCA | Seawater, river water, and effluent samples | Without SPE: 0.1 mg/L With SPE: 300 ng/L | [106] |
Laser thermal desorption (LDTD) coupled with Orbitrap HRMS | PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnA, PFDoA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS, PFDS, FOSA, 6:2 FTS | Surface water samples | 0.03–0.2 ng/L | [61,107] |
Total oxidisable precursor (TOP) assays | 29 target analytes including PFUnDA, PFOA, and PFOS | Surface water samples | Method detection limit (MDL): 0.5–7.9 ng/L | [6] |
4. Conclusions
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Future Direction
- Field test device: portable and capable of in situ PFAS analysis.
- Rapid analysis: detecting PFAS at its source in time to take immediate action. Laboratory results for remote sites can take a week or more to arrive.
- Continuous monitoring of a polluted site: ensuring compliance with regulatory standards by monitoring soil, water, and wastewater remediation processes.
- Capable of speciating PFAS molecules: specific, sensitive, and selective against competing ions or molecules to enable operation in harsh environments containing high concentrations of interfering compounds.
- Integrating into a network of smart sensing technology, allowing PFAS contamination mapping and monitoring.
- Using high-resolution cameras and custom applications to analyse sample images and compare them to a calibration curve.
- Utilising GPS tracking and an internet connection to upload results and access online help for on-site assistance, providing rapid and remote response to PFAS monitoring works.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Glossary
PASF | Perfluoroalkane sulfonyl fluoride |
PFAAs | Perfluoroalkyl acids |
PFAIs | Perfluoroalkyl iodides |
PFCAs | Perfluroalkyl carboxylates (or acid forms) |
PFSAs | Perfluoroalkane sulfonates (or acid forms) |
PFPAs | Perfluroalkyl phosphonates (or acid forms) |
PFPiAs | Perfluroalkyl phosphinates (or acid forms) |
FTIs | Fluorotelometer iodides |
PFECAs | Per- and polyfluoroether carboxylates (or acid forms) |
PFESAs | Per- and polyfluoroether sulfonates (or acid forms) |
FPs | Fluoropolymers |
PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene |
PVDF | Polyvinylidene fluoride |
FEP | Fluorinated ethylene propylene |
PVF | Polyvinyl fluoride |
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Research Questions (RQ) | Research Focus |
---|---|
RQ 1: What is the purpose of the study? | PFAS monitoring and detection methods |
RQ 2: When were these data collected? | Studies conducted between 2003 to June 2023. |
RQ 3: Which sources are considered for PFAS contamination? | Studies conducted on surface waters, tap waters, aqueous waters, soils, or sediments |
RQ 4: What was the screening process? | Journal and conference publications, full manuscripts and written in English only. |
Sensor-Based Technology | Optical-based [67,68] | Using optical signals:
|
Nanoparticles-based:
| ||
Dye:
| ||
Optical fibre:
| ||
Electrochemical-based [63,64] | Using quantifiable electrical signals:
| |
Electrode:
|
Methods/Techniques | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Factor 4 | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chromatography | Targeted and non-targeted analytes | Sample extraction and clean-up required | Able to detect analyte concentrations below 10 ng/L | Soil, water, and other various sample types |
|
Other instrumentation analysis | Targeted and non-targeted analytes | Sample extraction and clean-up required | Some analyses are able to detect analyte concentrations below 10 ng/L (examples: LDTD, TOP), but mostly by incorporating chromatography techniques | Soil, water, and other various sample types |
|
Sensor-based technology | Targeted analytes only | Sample extraction and clean-up required | Some sensors are able to detect analyte concentrations below 10 ng/L (examples: sensors based on biosensors, and electrochemical, electrochemiluminescence, fluorescence, photoelectrochemical and nanoparticle sensors) | Mainly water, potential for use with soil and other sample types |
|
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Nahar, K.; Zulkarnain, N.A.; Niven, R.K. A Review of Analytical Methods and Technologies for Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Water. Water 2023, 15, 3577. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203577
Nahar K, Zulkarnain NA, Niven RK. A Review of Analytical Methods and Technologies for Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Water. Water. 2023; 15(20):3577. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203577
Chicago/Turabian StyleNahar, Kamrun, Noor Azwa Zulkarnain, and Robert K. Niven. 2023. "A Review of Analytical Methods and Technologies for Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Water" Water 15, no. 20: 3577. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15203577