(Micro)Biological Sediment Formation in a Non-Chlorinated Drinking Water Distribution System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Locations
2.2. Long Term Temporal Variations of Sediments at One Location in the Study Distribution System
2.3. Spatial Variations of Sediments
2.4. Sediment Analysis
2.5. Additional Samples for Detailed Characterization of Sediments
3. Results
3.1. Long Term Variations of Sediments at Location E1
3.2. Sediment Characterization at Location E1
3.3. Spatial Variations
4. Discussion
4.1. Sediment Collection Methodology
4.2. A sediment Formation Process Closely Linked to (Micro)Biological Processes
4.3. Impact of Hydraulic Conditions on Sediment Formation
4.4. Sediment Formation Mechanism Hypothesis
- ▪ Polysaccharides, NaCl and other inorganic precipitates released by the treatment plant bind to each other to form larger precipitates, which represent a matrix for further binding of small particles, organic and inorganic matter;
- ▪ The larger precipitates become an excellent attachment site for bacterial growth, resulting in production of proteins. Biomineralization/bio-chemical processes can lead to the additional formation of, for example, CaCO3 or iron precipitates on the particles;
- ▪ The size of aggregates increases along the distribution network as more compounds and microorganisms bind to them;
- ▪ Nutrients released by the treatment plant promote biofilm growth on pipe walls. Particles released by the treatment plant or formed along the distribution network can be entrapped in the biofilm. This leads to accumulation of, for example, iron precipitates or other inorganic and organic compounds. Biomineralization may also take place inside the biofilm. In the case of cast-iron pipes or appendages, biofilm growth is known to enhance particle production;
- ▪ Hydraulic conditions, grazing and die-off cause detachment of biofilm;
- ▪ The formed aggregates or detached biofilm flocs can settle where hydraulic conditions allow (i.e., where flow velocities decrease significantly during the day, typically at night due to decreased water consumption);
- ▪ The biofilm on pipe walls and settled particles can be utilized by invertebrates as a food source. The invertebrates contribute to the sediment formation by production of feces and formation of detritus (i.e., the rotting bodies of dead invertebrates). Decay of dead invertebrate (e.g., Asellidae) exoskeletons further contributes to the presence of CaCO3 in the sediment aggregates. The presence of Asellidae and feces promotes additional microbial growth;
- ▪ The microbial growth on the pipe walls and in the aggregates, as well as growth of invertebrates in the sediment, are influenced by temperatures resulting in seasonal processes.
4.5. Role of Water Treatment
5. Conclusions
- ▪ Sediment is formed seasonally in the distribution system. Sediment formation follows similar variations as temperature, and the presence of invertebrates and Aeromonas;
- ▪ Particulate material collected at downstream distribution locations was not released by the treatment plant but developed along the distribution system, with increasing particle/floc size, invertebrate biomass and Fe and Mn content with longer distances and residence times;
- ▪ The collected material contained proteins, calcium carbonate and iron precipitates;
- ▪ The large crustaceans Asellidae play a major role in sediment formation through feces excretion, and degradation of exoskeleton of dead animals;
- ▪ Sediment formation may be initiated (partly) by aggregation of inorganic precipitates, particles and organic matter released by the treatment. Flocs containing inorganics may also originate from biofilm that is detached from the pipe walls. Particles and inorganic compounds, as well as organic compounds, should, therefore, be closely monitored in future studies;
- ▪ Though the sediment formation mechanism seems to be the same in different systems, water quality at the treatment plant outlet impacts the extent of material production along the distribution system and the growth of invertebrates.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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SAMPLE Point | Location | Pipe Diameter (mm) | Flow Range in Pipe (m3/h) | Flow Velocity in Pipe (m/s) | Type of Installation | Sampling Location in the Pipe | Water Volume Collected Per Week Per Filter | Filters Replacement Frequency | Number of Data Points and Measurement Period |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A1 | Treatment effluent | 900 | 1980 ± 160 | 0.88 ± 0.07 | Mobile unit | Side | 30–40 m3 | T > 12 °C: weekly; T < 12 °C: every two weeks | N = 28 May–December 2017 |
B1 | Transport pipe | 900 | 730 ± 470 | 0.32 ± 0.20 | Mobile unit | Side | 60–70 m3 | Every two weeks ** | N = 15 May–December 2017 |
C1 | Transport pipe | 700 | 470 ± 190 | 0.37 ± 0.14 | Mobile unit | Measure lance (top, middle, bottom) | 30–40 m3 | T > 12 °C: weekly; T < 12 °C: every two weeks | N = 29 May–December 2017 |
D1 | Transport pipe | 500 | 107 ± 44 | 0.15 ± 0.06 | Mobile unit | Measure lance (top, middle, bottom) | 30–40 m3 | T > 12 °C: weekly; T < 12 °C: every two weeks | N = 29 May–December 2017 |
E1 | Distribution pipe | 150 | 7 ± 4 * | 0.10 ± 0.06 | Fixed unit | Full stream | 30–40 m3 | T > 12 °C: weekly; T < 12 °C: every two weeks | N = 29 May–December 2017 |
A2 | Treatment effluent | 700 | 1420 ± 570 | 1.02 ± 0.41 | Mobile unit | Side | 30–40 m3 | Every two weeks ** | N = 18 April–December 2018 |
C2 | Transport pipe | 500 | 190 ± 40 | 0.26 ± 0.06 | Mobile unit | Side | 30–40 m3 | Every two weeks ** | N = 18 April–December 2018 |
D2 | Transport pipe | 300 | 128 ± 100 | 0.50 ± 0.40 | Mobile unit | Side | 30–40 m3 | Every two weeks ** | N = 18 April–December 2018 |
Location | Wavenumber (cm−1) | Compounds |
---|---|---|
A1 | 3330, 2928, 1662, 1438, 1122, 874 | Proteins, polysaccharides, CaCO3 |
C1 | 3343, 2923 (strong), 1643, 1457, 1377, 996, 875, 799, 716 | Proteins, CaCO3 |
D1 | 2930, 1643, 1423, 1000, 874 | Proteins, CaCO3, sand |
E1 | 3309, 2957, 1653, 1423, 998, 874 (strong) | Proteins, CaCO3, sand |
Location | CaCO3 % | SiO2 % | NaCl % | FeO(OH) + Fe2O3H2O % |
---|---|---|---|---|
A1 | 17.0 | 4.48 | 76.2 | 2.0 +2.98 |
C1 | 75.7 | 14.8 | - | 2.3 +14.8 |
D1 | 74.6 | 5.0 | - | 4.6 + 15.9 |
E1 | 78.4 | 7.2 | 4.1 | 3.2 + 7.2 |
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Prest, E.I.; Martijn, B.J.; Rietveld, M.; Lin, Y.; Schaap, P.G. (Micro)Biological Sediment Formation in a Non-Chlorinated Drinking Water Distribution System. Water 2023, 15, 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15020214
Prest EI, Martijn BJ, Rietveld M, Lin Y, Schaap PG. (Micro)Biological Sediment Formation in a Non-Chlorinated Drinking Water Distribution System. Water. 2023; 15(2):214. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15020214
Chicago/Turabian StylePrest, Emmanuelle I., Bram J. Martijn, Matthijs Rietveld, Yuemei Lin, and Peter G. Schaap. 2023. "(Micro)Biological Sediment Formation in a Non-Chlorinated Drinking Water Distribution System" Water 15, no. 2: 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15020214