Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Using Seawater in CBMs
3. Using Treated Industrial Wastewater in CBMs
4. Using Treated Sewage Wastewater in CBMs
5. Using Carwash Service Station Wastewater in CBMs
6. Using Wastewater from Ready-Mix Concrete Plants in CBMs
7. Using Wastewater from the Stone-Cutting Industry in CBMs
8. Conclusions
- Seawater does not considerably affect the air content, density, chloride ingression, pore structure, permeability, and carbonation of CBMs; however, it reduces the setting time.
- Industrial wastewater can be used (up to 100%) as a replacement for normal water in CBMs after treatment. However, the compressive and tensile strengths can be decreased by up to 15 and 7% by using it as a full replacement for normal water, respectively, and by postponing the setting time. Industrial wastewater decreases workability but has a negligible effect on the air content of fresh concrete.
- The secondary-treated domestic sewerage wastewater is suitable for producing cement mortars and concretes in accordance with the allowable limits of mixing water for concrete compared with primary-treated domestic sewerage wastewater.
- The use of carwash service wastewater in CBMs may have adverse effects on their mechanical and durability properties, such as compressive strength, corrosion, chloride penetration, acid attack, sulphate attack, and water absorption, because they may contain many pollutants. Carwash service wastewater should be used partially as a replacement for potable water in CBMs for its safe usage.
- The use of raw waste wash water from a ready-mix concrete plant reduces the compressive strength of concrete by about 10%, and the use of recycled ready-mixed concrete wastewater for mortars and concrete does not have harmful effects on their properties. However, it reduces the setting times.
- Wastewater from the stone-cutting industry used in concrete production reduces the slump value by about 58% and increases its compressive and flexural strengths by 21 and 18% at 28 days, respectively.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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S. No. | Main Findings | References |
---|---|---|
Fresh properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The workability of concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and seawater decreased compared to plain concrete. | [30,31] |
2 | The workability of concrete mixed with seawater was unaffected compared with plain concrete prepared with tap water. | [32] |
3 | The workability of concrete mixes can vary using seawater and sea sand from various regions. | [32] |
4 | The workability of concrete reduces by using seawater in its mixing. | [33] |
Physical properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The setting time of the cement paste was unaffected by using seawater. | [34] |
2 | The initial and final setting times of cement decreased with the increase in the concentration of seawater. | [32,35] |
3 | Setting time of cement paste with seawater decreased by about 30% compared to that with normal potable water due to the fast hydration process of cement. | [33] |
4 | The weight of the concrete with seawater increased by around 2% after 28 days. It can be controlled by using SCMs, such as coal bottom ash because it decays the penetration of harmful salts and reduces the setting time of CBMs. | [31] |
5 | Concrete mixed and cured with seawater had a minimum water penetration depth of 25 mm due to the crystallisation of salts. | [36] |
6 | The density and modulus of the elasticity of concrete mixed and cured with seawater were unaffected compared with normal concrete. | [36] |
7 | Seawater does not affect the air content and density of CBMs because the density of seawater is 2%–3% higher than that of fresh tap water. | [33] |
8 | Concrete specimens (1.7% volume) exposed to the freeze–thaw action in the marine environment decreased by the effect of seawater, and their colours changed from dark grey to light grey. | [28] |
Strength properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The early strength-gaining rate of concrete made and cured with seawater increased rapidly at 7 days due to chlorides in the seawater that accelerated the setting of cement and improved the strength. | [30,37] |
2 | The strength-gaining rate was observed to be reduced at 14, 28, and 90 days due to leaching out of soft hydration products or sulphates in seawater that retarded the setting of cement. | [38,39,40] |
3 | The strength of concrete containing seawater was observed to be reduced by around 15% compared to similar concrete specimens made and cured with fresh water at 90 days. | [38,41] |
4 | Concrete mixed and cured in seawater had higher compressive, tensile, flexural, and bond strengths than concrete mixed and cured in fresh water at the early ages of 7 and 14 days. The strengths after 28 and 90 days for concrete mixes mixed and cured in fresh water increased slowly. | [24,42] |
5 | The tensile properties of concrete were weakened by the sulphate salts present in the seawater. | [43] |
6 | The seawater and sea sand concretes were slightly more brittle than ordinary concrete. | [44] |
7 | Seawater had an enhanced effect on the early strength development of sea sand concrete. | [44] |
Durability properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The usage of fly ash with a low w/c ratio made the concrete more chloride-resistant against seawater. | [45] |
2 | Chloride salts in the seawater caused the deterioration of concrete due to the chloride-induced corrosion of steel. | [43] |
3 | No effect was observed on the stress–strain performance of seawater-cured concrete compared with the freshwater-cured concrete. | [28] |
4 | Seawater was responsible for the corrosion of concrete reinforcement. | [46] |
5 | The usage of corrosion inhibitors, such as fibre-reinforced polymers, was suggested to overcome the negative effects of seawater. | [47] |
6 | A negligible effect of seawater was observed on the carbonation process of concrete. | [32] |
7 | Concretes with seawater had more resistance against drying shrinkage and less against the freeze–thaw action due to the presence of chlorides. | [32] |
8 | The permeability of concrete produced through seawater mixing was not influenced. | [33] |
9 | Shrinkage was recorded to be 5% more than the conventional concrete produced through normal water mixing. | [33] |
10 | Chloride ingression resistance was unaffected by seawater. A rapid chloride permeability test was performed on freshwater and seawater concretes, and the results were approximately the same for the two concretes. | [33] |
11 | The same pore structure was found for freshwater-cured concrete and seawater-cured concrete. | [48] |
12 | The use of SCMs improved the serviceability and life of concrete exposed to the marine environment. | [31] |
S. No. | Main Findings | References |
---|---|---|
Fresh properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The use of treated industrial wastewater has a minimal effect on the air content of freshly mixed concrete. | [5] |
2 | The workability of concrete decreased by using tertiary and secondary-treated wastewaters; however, it can be improved by adding plasticisers. | [51] |
Physical properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The use of treated industrial wastewater has a minimal effect on the normal consistency of hydraulic cement and the density of concrete. | [5] |
2 | The use of treated industrial wastewater in the cement paste postponed the final setting time to 17 min. | [5] |
3 | Concrete with treated industrial wastewater has regular and well-formed crystals compared with concrete that has drinking water in accordance with the scanning electron microscopy images. | [5] |
Strength properties of CBMs | ||
1 | Textile factory wastewater presented higher compressive and split tensile strengths than concrete with potable water. | [50] |
2 | The compressive strengths of concrete samples made with 100%drinking water were higher than concrete samples mixed withwater containing 25 to 100% of treated wastewater. | [52] |
3 | The compressive strength of concrete with treated industrial wastewater decreased by an average of 6.9% than the compressive strength of cement mortar with drinking water. | [5] |
4 | The use of treated industrial wastewater in concrete production decreased the tensile strength of concrete by 11.8% at 90 days. | [5] |
5 | The compressive strengths of concrete ranged from 85% to 94% ofnormal concrete by replacing 100% tap water with tertiary-treated wastewater and curing in tap water with tertiary wastewater. | [51] |
6 | The use of industrial wastewater had a minor effect on the strength properties of concrete. | [53] |
Durability properties of CBMs | ||
1 | Amongst the five various types of wastewaters separately used for the mixing of concrete (textile factory wastewater, fertiliserfactory wastewater, domestic sewerage wastewater, service station wastewater, and sugar factory wastewater), fertiliser factory wastewater showed the highest mass loss and chloride penetration. | [50] |
2 | An increase of about 7.7% was observed in the electrical resistivity of concrete with treated industrial wastewater than using drinking water in concrete production. | [5] |
3 | The carbonation resistance of concrete decreased by using tertiary-treated water as a replacement for tap water. | [51] |
4 | The use of tertiary wastewater with tap water for curing or only tertiary wastewater for the curing of concrete increased the abrasion resistance. | [51] |
S. No. | Main Findings | References |
---|---|---|
Fresh properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The slump of concrete was unaffected by the type of mixing water, such as preliminary-, secondary-, and tertiary-treated sewage wastewaters. | [56] |
2 | For primary, secondary, and domestic wastewaters and potable water, the slump value of concrete changed between 90 and 100 mm. | [58] |
3 | The initial and final setting times of cement paste were the same for potable water and secondary-treated wastewater, whereas they decreased for primary-treated wastewater. | [58] |
4 | A reduction in concrete workability was observed using domestic primary-treated wastewater. | [59] |
5 | The use of treated domestic wastewater increased the setting time of cement related to using drinking water in concrete. | [60] |
6 | The use of domestic wastewater in concrete did not cause any remarkable deterioration in its fresh and hardened properties. | [61] |
7 | The use of wastewaters from small-scale water treatment plants in residential buildings did not affect the initial setting time of OPC; however, a considerable change was observed in its final setting time. | [10] |
Physical properties of CBMs | ||
1 | The density of concrete was unaffected by the type of mixing water, such as preliminary, secondary, and tertiary-treated sewage wastewaters. | [56] |
2 | Initial and final setting times of concrete were found to increase with deteriorating water quality. Preliminary and secondary-treated wastewaters had more effects on retarding the setting times. | [56] |
3 | A considerable increase in the initial setting time of up to 16.7% was observed in the concrete using domestic primary-treated wastewater compared with potable wastewater. | [59] |
4 | No considerable effect was observed on the use of domestic primary- or secondary-treated wastewater on the soundness value of mortar. | [59] |
Strength properties of CBMs | ||
1 | Concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater showed a reduction of about 50% in compressive strength due to the water absorption property of mixed organic waste than that of the compressive strength of concrete made by using potable water. | [50] |
2 | Concrete mixes with domestic sewerage wastewater showed a maximum split tensile strength of 92.3% compared with that of concrete having potable water. | [50] |
3 | Concrete with preliminary and secondary sewage-treated wastewaters showed lower strengths for ages of up to 1 year than concrete made with potable water. | [56] |
4 | The compressive strength of mortar and concrete improved at 28 and 60 days by mixing secondary-treated wastewater, respectively. However, no improvement was observed in the tensile and flexural strengths of mortar and concrete by mixing secondary-treated wastewater compared with potable water. | [58] |
5 | No negative effect was observed on the compressive strength of mortar made with domestic secondary-treated wastewater at a curing age of 200 days. However, a reduction of about 16.2% was found in the compressive strength of mortar using domestic primary-treated wastewater. | [59] |
6 | The type of mixing water, such as domestic primary- and secondary-treated wastewater, distilled water, and fresh water did not affect the continuous increase in the concrete and mortar’s compressive strength. However, the compressive strength growth rate is dependent on the type of mixing water. | [59] |
7 | Concrete cast with treated sewage wastewater obtained higher compressive strength compared with concrete treated with potable water for up to 28 days. | [62] |
8 | The compressive strength of concrete under rapid freezing and thawing decreased by about 10% by using treated domestic wastewater in place of using drinking water. | [60] |
9 | The use of secondary-treated sewage wastewater had a negligible effect on the strength properties of concrete. | [53] |
10 | The compressive and flexural strengths of OPC pastes made with wastewaters from small-scale water treatment plants in residential buildings were less than the samples made with distilled water. However, they were within the limits as per code IS: 456-2000 and BS: 3148-1980. | [10] |
Durability properties of CBMs | ||
1 | Water absorption of the concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater was about 114.05% at 28 days and 120.65% at 90 days than that of concrete with potable water. | [50] |
2 | Concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater showed the highest mass loss of about 103.3% due to the acid attack at the testing age of 120 days compared with that of the concrete with potable water. | [50] |
3 | Concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater showed a maximum chloride penetration of 101.7% compared with that of concrete having potable water at 120 days. | [50] |
4 | The possibility of steel corrosion increased by using sewage-treated wastewater. | [56] |
5 | The effects of domestic primary- and secondary-treated wastewater on concrete water absorption and durability were insignificant. | [59] |
6 | Concrete samples produced and cured with treated domestic wastewater did not have remarkable effects on water absorption and surface electrical resistivity compared to concrete samples using drinking water. | [60] |
7 | Chloride permeability was high for sewage-treated wastewater concrete compared to potable water concrete at 14 and 28 days. | [62] |
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Yousuf, S.; Shafigh, P.; Muda, Z.C.; Katman, H.Y.B.; Latif, A. Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review. Water 2023, 15, 2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828
Yousuf S, Shafigh P, Muda ZC, Katman HYB, Latif A. Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review. Water. 2023; 15(15):2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828
Chicago/Turabian StyleYousuf, Sumra, Payam Shafigh, Zakaria Che Muda, Herda Yati Binti Katman, and Abid Latif. 2023. "Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review" Water 15, no. 15: 2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828
APA StyleYousuf, S., Shafigh, P., Muda, Z. C., Katman, H. Y. B., & Latif, A. (2023). Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based Materials: A Review. Water, 15(15), 2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828