Exploring the Viability of Utilizing Treated Wastewater as a Sustainable Water Resource for Green Hydrogen Generation Using Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOECs)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Treated Wastewater Stream Description
2.2. Balance of the Plant for H2 Production through Electrolysis
2.3. SOEC
2.3.1. System Description
2.3.2. Modeling Approach
3. Results and Discussions
SOEC Simulation
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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WWTP A | WWTP B | WWTP C | WWTP D | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Capacity [P.E.] | 620,600 | 160,000 | 120,500 | 52,000 |
Average flow rate [m3/d] | 155,300 | 50,400 | 27,500 | 23,300 |
Industrial load [%] | 15 | 19 | 11 | 25 |
WWTP scheme | Activated sludge with pre- and post- denitrification; tertiary filtration | Membrane bioreactor (MBR) with pre-denitrification | Activated sludge with alternating oxic/anoxic cycles; tertiary filtration | Activated sludge; tertiary filtration |
Composition | STREAM A (n = 54) | STREAM B (n = 75) | STREAM C (n = 54) | STREAM D (n = 61) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Average | 95th Percentile | Average | 95th Percentile | Average | 95th Percentile | Average | 95th Percentile | ||
pH | [-] | 7.6 | 7.7 | 7.7 | 8.0 | 7.6 | 7.8 | 7.6 | 7.9 |
E.C. | [μS/cm] | 780 | 889 | 637 | 788.8 | 606 | 741 | 672.1 | 874.2 |
COD | [mg/L] | 19 | 22 | 15.2 | 15 | 15.3 | 16.8 | 15.5 | 18 |
BOD5 | [mg/L] | 5.4 | 7 | 5.4 | 9.3 | 5.7 | 9.0 | 5.5 | 8.0 |
TSS | [mg/L] | 6.6 | 5.0 | 6.4 | 9.3 | 5.7 | 8.8 | 5.7 | 11 |
TN | [mg/L] | 7.3 | 9.6 | 6.4 | 10.3 | 3.9 | 6.8 | 9.0 | 19 |
TP | [mg/L] | 0.7 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 0.8 |
Al | [mg/L] | 0.20 | 0.25 | 0.11 | 0.20 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
As | [mg/L] | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.014 | 0.030 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.018 | 0.030 |
Ba | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.1 | 0.1 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Bo | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.11 | 0.17 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.22 | 0.63 |
Cd | [mg/L] | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.003 | 0.010 | 0.005 | 0.01 | 0.005 | 0.01 |
Cr TOT | [mg/L] | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.033 | 0.1 | 0.05 | 0.1 | 0.045 | 0.100 |
Cr(VI) | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. |
Fe | [mg/L] | 0.12 | 0.25 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.098 | 0.100 |
Mn | [mg/L] | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.063 | 0.100 |
Hg | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.005 | 0.005 |
Ni | [mg/L] | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.036 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.1 | 0.046 | 0.100 |
Pb | [mg/L] | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.051 | 0.100 | 0.07 | 0.1 | 0.058 | 0.100 |
Cu | [mg/L] | 0.013 | 0.025 | 0.011 | 0.020 | 0.013 | 0.026 | 0.010 | 0.010 |
Zn | [mg/L] | 0.08 | 0.24 | 0.11 | 0.28 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.13 |
Chloride (Cl−) | [mg/L] | 100.7 | 121.1 | 59.0 | 89.2 | 48.4 | 76.2 | 60.2 | 102.4 |
Sulphate (SO42−) | [mg/L] | 51 | 54 | 38.4 | 52.1 | 27 | 38 | 37.4 | 43.0 |
Sulphite (SO3−) | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.2 | 0.2 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Sulphide (S2−) | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.1 | 0.1 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Cyanide (CN−) | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.01 | 0.01 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Fluoride (F−) | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.25 | 0.25 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.25 | 0.25 |
Phenols | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.1 | 0.1 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Total HCs | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 0.05 | 0.05 | n.a. | n.a. | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Vegetable oils and fats | [mg/L] | n.a. | n.a. | 10 | 10 | n.a. | n.a. | 10 | 10 |
Anionic surfactants | [mg/L] | 0.22 | 0.28 | 0.22 | 0.30 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.25 | 0.44 |
Non-ionic surfactants | [mg/L] | 0.218 | 0.283 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
Total surfactants | [mg/L] | 0.27 | 0.45 | 0.25 | 0.46 | 0.28 | 0.48 | 0.35 | 0.74 |
E. coli | [CFU/100 mL] | n.a. | n.a. | 19.5 | 75.1 | 1 | 1 | 6.6 | 22.4 |
Salmonella | [CFU/100 mL] | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. |
Original Liquid Stream (mg/L) | Scenario 1 | Scenario 2 | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | B | C | D | V (%) | Limits SW (mg/L) | V (%) | Limits PS (mg/L) | |||||||
ASW | Bsw | Csw | Dsw | APS | BPS | CPS | DPS | |||||||
COD | 22 | 15 | 16.8 | 18 | 63.3 | 75 | 72 | 70 | 60 | 95.8 | 97 | 96.6 | 96.4 | 500 |
BOD5 | 7 | 9.3 | 9 | 8 | 30 | 7 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 97.2 | 96.3 | 96.4 | 96.8 | 250 |
TSS | 5 | 9.3 | 8.8 | 11 | 66.7 | 38 | 41.3 | 26.7 | 15 | 97.5 | 95.4 | 95.6 | 94.5 | 200 |
TN | 7.3 | 6.4 | 3.9 | 9 | 27 | 36 | 61 | 10 | 10 | 86.5 | 88.1 | 92.8 | 83.3 | 53.9 |
TP | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 30 | 10 | 30 | 50 | 1 | 93 | 91 | 93 | 95 | 10 |
Al | 0.245 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 75.5 | 80 | 90 | 90 | 1 | 87.8 | 90 | 95 | 95 | 2 |
As | 0.03 | 0.003 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 0.5 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 0.5 |
Ba | n.a. | 0.1 | n.a. | 0.1 | - | 99.5 | - | 99.5 | 20 | - | - | - | - | 1000 |
Bo | n.a. | 0.17 | n.a. | 0.63 | - | 91.5 | - | 68.5 | 2 | - | 95.8 | - | 84.3 | 4 |
Cd | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 0.02 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 0.02 |
Fe | 0.25 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 87.5 | 80 | 95 | 95 | 2 | 93.8 | 90 | 97.5 | 97.5 | 4 |
Mn | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 90 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 2 | 95 | 97.5 | 97.5 | 97.5 | 4 |
Ni | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 2 | 97.5 | 97.5 | 97.5 | 97.5 | 4 |
Pb | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 0.2 | 66.7 | 66.7 | 66.7 | 66.7 | 0.3 |
Cu | 0.025 | 0.02 | 0.025 | 0.01 | 75 | 80 | 75 | 90 | 0.1 | 93.8 | 95 | 93.8 | 97.5 | 0.4 |
Zn | 0.24 | 0.28 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 52 | 44 | 78 | 74 | 0.5 | 76 | 72 | 89 | 87 | 1 |
Hg | n.a. | 0.0005 | n.a. | 0.005 | - | 90 | - | 0 | 0.005 | - | 90 | - | 0 | 0.005 |
Node | STREAM A | STREAM C | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature [°C] | MFR | Phase | Quality | Temperature [°C] | MFR | Phase | Quality | |
Wastewater | ||||||||
1 | 25 | 1.000 | L | SC | 25 | 1.000 | L | SC |
2 | 25 | 1.000 | L | SC | 25 | 1.000 | L | SC |
3 | 25 | 0.800 | L | SC | 25 | 0.800 | L | SC |
3′ | 25 | 0.200 | L | SC | 25 | 0.200 | L | SC |
4 | 72 | 0.800 | L | SC | 72 | 0.800 | L | SC |
4′ | 100 | 0.200 | TP | 0.27 | 100 | 0.200 | TP | 0.10 |
5 | 100 | 0.800 | TP | 0.27 | 100 | 0.800 | TP | 0.10 |
6 L | 100 | 0.730 | L | 0 | 100 | 0.900 | L | 0 |
6 amb | 35 | 0.730 | L | SC | 35 | 0.900 | L | SC |
Water | ||||||||
6 V | 100 | 0.270 | G | 1 | 100 | 0.100 | G | 1 |
7 | 673 | 0.270 | G | SH | 673 | 0.100 | G | SH |
8 | 839 | 0.270 | G | SH | 839 | 0.100 | G | SH |
9 | 25 | 0.040 | L | SC | 25 | 0.013 | L | SC |
Water/Hydrogen | ||||||||
10 | 839 | 0.276 | G | SH | 839 | 0.103 | G | SH |
11 | 839 | 0.070 | G | SH | 839 | 0.026 | G | SH |
12 | 839 | 0.005 | G | SH | 839 | 0.003 | G | SH |
13 | 839 | 0.065 | G | SH | 839 | 0.023 | G | SH |
14 | 150 | 0.065 | G | SH | 150 | 0.023 | G | SH |
15 | 25 | 0.065 | M | SC/SH | 25 | 0.023 | M | SC/SH |
Hydrogen | ||||||||
16 | 25 | 0.026 | G | SH | 25 | 0.010 | G | SH |
Air | ||||||||
17 | 25 | 0.292 | G | SH | 25 | 0.109 | G | SH |
18 | 25 | 0.292 | G | SH | 25 | 0.109 | G | SH |
19 | 789 | 0.292 | G | SH | 789 | 0.109 | G | SH |
20 | 839 | 0.292 | G | SH | 839 | 0.109 | G | SH |
Air/Oxygen | ||||||||
21 | 839 | 0.503 | G | SH | 839 | 0.186 | G | SH |
22 | 400 | 0.503 | G | SH | 400 | 0.186 | G | SH |
23 | 79 | 0.503 | G | SH | 79 | 0.186 | G | SH |
24 | 25 | 0.503 | G | SH | 25 | 0.186 | G | SH |
Unit | Value | |
---|---|---|
Electricity | [kWh/kgH2] | 34.5 |
Heat duty | [kWh/kgH2] | 14.6 |
Heat recovered | [kWh/ kgH2] | 8.2 |
Heat from external sources | [kWh/ kgH2] | 6.4 |
Heat share recovered | [%] | 56 |
SOEC efficiency | [%] | 85 |
Unit | STREAM A | STREAM C | |
---|---|---|---|
Heat duty | [MWh/m3] | 0.38 | 0.22 |
Heat recovered | [MWh/m3] | 0.21 | 0.14 |
Heat from external sources | [MWh/m3] | 0.17 | 0.08 |
Heat share recovered | [%] | 56 | 64 |
Electricity consumption | [MWh/m3] | 0.90 | 0.33 |
Wastewater vaporization | [%] | 27 | 10 |
Clean water production | [L/m3] | 36.2 | 13.4 |
Hydrogen production | [kg/m3] | 26.2 | 9.7 |
Unit | STREAM A | STREAM C | |
---|---|---|---|
Wastewater flow rate | [m3/d] | 155,347 | 27,500 |
SOEC load factor | [%] | 50 | 50 |
SOEC power capacity | [GW] | 12.1 | 0.8 |
Clean water production | [m3/d] | 5626 | 368 |
Hydrogen production | [t/d] | 4067 | 268 |
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Maddaloni, M.; Marchionni, M.; Abbá, A.; Mascia, M.; Tola, V.; Carpanese, M.P.; Bertanza, G.; Artioli, N. Exploring the Viability of Utilizing Treated Wastewater as a Sustainable Water Resource for Green Hydrogen Generation Using Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOECs). Water 2023, 15, 2569. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142569
Maddaloni M, Marchionni M, Abbá A, Mascia M, Tola V, Carpanese MP, Bertanza G, Artioli N. Exploring the Viability of Utilizing Treated Wastewater as a Sustainable Water Resource for Green Hydrogen Generation Using Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOECs). Water. 2023; 15(14):2569. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142569
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaddaloni, Marina, Matteo Marchionni, Alessandro Abbá, Michele Mascia, Vittorio Tola, Maria Paola Carpanese, Giorgio Bertanza, and Nancy Artioli. 2023. "Exploring the Viability of Utilizing Treated Wastewater as a Sustainable Water Resource for Green Hydrogen Generation Using Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOECs)" Water 15, no. 14: 2569. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142569