Purification of Sewage Wastewater though Sand Column Filter for Lessening of Heavy Metals Accumulation in Lettuce, Carrot, and Cauliflower
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Details
2.2. Preparation of Sand-Based Column
2.3. Growth and Yield Traits
2.4. Determination of Heavy Metals
2.4.1. Chemical Preparation
2.4.2. Pre-Treatment of Sewage Wastewater before and after Filtration
2.4.3. Digestion of Plant Samples for Heavy Metal Extraction
2.4.4. Extraction of Heavy Metals from Plant and Water Samples
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sewage Wastewater Characteristics before and after Filtration Used in the Experiment
3.2. Heavy Metal Content in Unfiltered and Filtered Sewage Wastewater Samples
3.3. Growth and Yield of Spinach, Carrot, and Cauliflower
3.4. Heavy Metal Buildup in Leaves
3.5. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Roots
3.6. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Curds of Cauliflower
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sewage Wastewater | pH | EC (dSm−1) | HCO3 | RSC | Ca + Mg (meq L−1) | Sulfate (meq L−1) | Na (meqL−1) | Cl (meqL−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unfiltered | 7.3 | 0.183 | 13 | 4.4 | 9.6 | 1.09 | 8.79 | 5.02 |
Filtered | 7.5 | 0.391 | 10 | 3.5 | 7.5 | 0.79 | 6.91 | 4.5 |
Sewage Wastewater | Pb+2 | Ni+2 | Cu+2 | Cd+2 | Fe+2 | Cr+2 | TDS | Hardness |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unfiltered | 2.48 a | 1.96 a | 3.26 a | 1.26 a | 8.76 a | 0.46 a | 200 | 700 |
Filtered | 1.71 b | 1.35 b | 2.58 b | 0.83 b | 6.30 b | 0.32 b | 160 | 570 |
* WHO/FAO | 5.0 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 5.0 | 0.1 | 70 | 500 |
Sewage Wastewater | Spinach | Cauliflower | Carrot | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year I | Year II | Mean | Year I | Year II | Mean | Year I | Year II | Mean | |
Number of leaves per plant | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 36.43 a | 37.36 a | 36.90 a | 30.66 a | 32.33 a | 31.50 a | 10.00 a | 9.33 a | 9.66 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 29.76 a | 33.20 a | 31.48 b | 30.66 a | 27.00 a | 28.83 a | 6.97 a | 6.93 a | 6.95 b |
Mean | 33.10 a | 35.28 a | 30.66 a | 29.66 a | 8.48 a | 8.13 a | |||
Fresh weight of leaves per plant (g) | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 179.34 a | 183.99 a | 181.66 a | 420.33 a | 439.33 a | 429.83 a | 56.86 a | 44.66 a | 50.76 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 147.00 a | 164.72 a | 155.86 b | 409.17 a | 397.07 a | 403.12 b | 32.52 a | 34.33 a | 33.43 b |
Mean | 163.17 a | 174.35 a | 414.75 a | 418.20 a | 44.69 a | 39.50 a | |||
Dry weight of leaves per plant (g) | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 14.55 a | 14.94 a | 14.74 a | 67.67 a | 70.73 a | 69.20 a | 6.20 a | 5.96 a | 6.08 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 11.94 a | 13.39 a | 12.66 b | 65.87 a | 63.92 a | 64.90 a | 4.63 a | 4.86 a | 4.75 b |
Mean | 13.25 a | 14.16 a | 66.77 a | 67.33 a | 5.41 a | 5.41 a | |||
Fresh weight of roots per plant (g) | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 4.30 a | 4.83 a | 4.56 a | 62.66 a | 62.50 a | 62.58 a | 101.93 a | 106.67 a | 104.30 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 2.76 a | 2.33 a | 2.55 b | 54.00 a | 52.33 a | 53.16 b | 95.97 a | 100.67 a | 98.32 b |
Mean | 3.53 a | 3.58 a | 58.33 a | 57.41 a | 98.95 a | 103.67 a | |||
Dry weight of roots per plant (g) | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 0.86 a | 0.96 a | 0.91 a | 16.23 a | 16.16 a | 16.20 a | 9.96 a | 10.50 a | 10.23 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 0.55 a | 0.46 a | 0.51 b | 11.86 a | 12.40 a | 12.13 b | 9.03 a | 9.30 a | 9.16 b |
Mean | 0.70 a | 0.72 a | 14.05 a | 14.28 a | 9.50 a | 9.90 a | |||
Biomass on fresh weight basis (g) | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 183.64 a | 188.82 a | 186.23 a | 1343.6 a | 1351.4 a | 1347.5 a | 158.80 a | 151.33 a | 155.07 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 149.77 a | 167.05 a | 158.41 b | 1290.2 a | 1270.6 a | 1280.4 b | 128.49 a | 135.00 a | 131.75 b |
Mean | 166.71 a | 177.94 a | 1316.9 a | 1311.0 a | 143.65 a | 143.17 a | |||
Biomass on dry weight basis (g) | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 15.41 a | 15.90 a | 15.66 a | 274.36 a | 279.08 a | 276.72 a | 16.16 a | 16.46 a | 16.31 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 12.50 a | 13.85 a | 13.17 b | 264.84 a | 262.18 a | 263.51 b | 13.66 a | 14.16 a | 13.91 b |
Mean | 13.95 a | 14.88 a | 269.60 a | 270.63 a | 14.91 a | 15.31 a |
Sewage Wastewater | Cauliflower | ||
---|---|---|---|
Year I | Year II | Mean | |
Curd diameter (cm) | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 36.02 a | 36.46 a | 36.24 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 31.30 a | 31.63 a | 31.46 b |
Mean | 33.66 a | 34.05 a | |
Curd fresh weight (g) | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 750.57 a | 753.23 a | 751.90 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 737.53 a | 739.53 a | 738.53 b |
Mean | 744.05 a | 746.38 a | |
Curd dry weight (g) | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 182.38 a | 183.82 a | 183.10 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 178.63 a | 178.62 a | 178.62 b |
Mean | 180.51 a | 181.22 a | |
Fresh weight of stem (g) | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 110.00 a | 96.33 a | 103.17 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 89.50 a | 81.67 a | 85.58 b |
Mean | 99.75 a | 89.00 a | |
Carrot | |||
Root length (cm) | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 26.53 a | 29.00 a | 27.76 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 25.23 a | 22.00 a | 23.61 b |
Mean | 25.88 a | 25.50 a | |
Root diameter (cm) | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 12.41 a | 12.93 a | 12.67 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 11.06 a | 10.11 a | 10.59 b |
Mean | 11.74 a | 11.52 a |
Sewage Wastewater | Spinach Leaves | Cauliflower Leaves | Carrot Leaves | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year I | Year II | Mean | Year I | Year II | Mean | Year I | Year II | Mean | |
Pb+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 4.466 a | 4.700 a | 4.583 a | 12.700 a | 12.867 a | 12.783 a | 6.400 a | 6.833 a | 6.616 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 3.233 a | 3.800 a | 3.516 b | 9.400 a | 9.333 a | 9.367 b | 4.666 a | 4.833 a | 4.750 b |
Mean | 3.850 a | 4.250 a | 11.050 a | 11.100 a | 5.533 a | 5.833 a | |||
Ni+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 13.100 a | 13.300 a | 13.200 a | 13.667 a | 14.000 a | 13.833 a | 12.467 a | 13.100 a | 12.783 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 10.767 a | 11.400 a | 11.083 b | 10.667 a | 10.867 a | 10.767 b | 9.867 a | 9.933 a | 9.900 b |
Mean | 11.933 a | 12.350 a | 12.167 a | 12.433 a | 11.167 a | 11.517 a | |||
Cu+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 13.800 a | 14.067 a | 13.933 a | 15.800 a | 15.633 a | 15.717 a | 11.200 a | 11.900 a | 11.550 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 10.933 a | 11.200 a | 11.067 b | 12.633 a | 12.700 a | 12.667 b | 9.700 a | 9.867 a | 9.783 b |
Mean | 12.367 a | 12.633 a | 14.167 a | 14.217 a | 10.450 a | 10.883 a | |||
Cd+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 0.400 a | 0.533 a | 0.466 a | 0.433 a | 0.466 a | 0.450 a | 0.333 a | 0.466 a | 0.400 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 0.090 a | 0.133 a | 0.111 a | 0.334 a | 0.334 a | 0.333 a | 0.250 a | 0.266 a | 0.258 a |
Mean | 0.245 a | 0.333 a | 0.383 a | 0.440 a | 0.291 a | 0.366 a | |||
Fe+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 294.70 a | 295.73 a | 295.22 a | 356.53 a | 360.03 a | 358.28 a | 181.00 a | 190.83 a | 185.92 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 238.50 a | 246.87 a | 242.68 b | 314.30 a | 317.80 a | 316.05 b | 146.80 a | 149.77 a | 148.28 b |
Mean | 266.60 a | 271.30 a | 335.42 a | 338.92 a | 163.90 a | 170.30 a | |||
Cr content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 0.090 a | 0.126 a | 0.108 a | 2.433 a | 2.433 a | 2.433 a | 0.633 a | 0.766 a | 0.700 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 0.056 a | 0.103 a | 0.079 a | 2.233 a | 2.266 a | 2.249 a | 0.466 a | 0.566 a | 0.516 a |
Mean | 0.073 a | 0.114 a | 2.250 a | 2.433 a | 0.550 a | 0.666 a |
Sewage Wastewater | Spinach Roots | Cauliflower Roots | Carrot Roots | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year I | Year II | Mean | Year I | Year II | Mean | Year I | Year II | Mean | |
Pb+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 3.100 a | 3.166 a | 3.133 a | 6.800 a | 6.766 a | 6.783 a | 8.600 a | 8.866 a | 8.733 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 2.666 a | 2.800 a | 2.733 b | 4.100 a | 4.266 a | 4.183 b | 6.800 a | 7.166 a | 6.983 b |
Mean | 2.883 a | 2.983 a | 5.450 a | 5.516 a | 7.700 a | 8.016 a | |||
Ni+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 11.133 a | 12.200 a | 11.667 a | 12.033 a | 11.733 a | 11.883 a | 15.800 a | 16.067 a | 15.933 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 9.660 a | 10.133 a | 9.867 b | 9.167 a | 9.367 a | 9.267 b | 13.633 a | 14.500 a | 14.067 b |
Mean | 10.367 a | 11.167 a | 10.600 a | 10.550 a | 14.717 a | 15.283 a | |||
Cu+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 13.033 a | 13.800 a | 13.417 a | 15.467 a | 15.633 a | 15.550 a | 12.800 a | 13.800 a | 13.300 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 9.267 a | 9.400 a | 9.333 b | 10.600 a | 11.100 a | 10.850 b | 9.967 a | 10.300 a | 10.133 b |
Mean | 11.150 a | 11.600 a | 13.033 a | 13.367 a | 11.383 a | 12.050 a | |||
Cd+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 0.300 a | 0.400 a | 0.350 a | 0.163 a | 0.133 a | 0.148 a | 0.600 a | 1.2667 a | 0.933 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 0.090 a | 0.166 a | 0.128 a | 0.056 a | 0.023 a | 0.040 a | 0.466 a | 0.633 a | 0.550 a |
Mean | 0.195 a | 0.283 a | 0.110 a | 0.078 a | 0.533 a | 0.950 a | |||
Fe+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 258.33 a | 261.40 a | 259.87 a | 259.27 a | 261.73 a | 260.50 a | 226.53 a | 231.30 a | 228.92 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 224.50 a | 233.73 a | 229.12 b | 315.47 a | 219.23 a | 217.35 b | 196.20 a | 199.37 a | 197.78 b |
Mean | 241.42 a | 247.57 a | 237.37 a | 240.48 a | 211.37 a | 215.33 a | |||
Cr+2 content | |||||||||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 2.000 a | 2.100 a | 2.050 a | 2.167 a | 2.166 a | 2.166 a | 1.200 a | 1.300 a | 1.250 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 1.433 a | 1.700 a | 1.566 a | 1.400 a | 1.600 a | 1.500 a | 0.833 a | 0.900 a | 0.866 a |
Mean | 1.716 a | 1.900 a | 1.783 a | 1.883 a | 1.016 a | 1.100 a |
Sewage Wastewater | Cauliflower Curds | ||
---|---|---|---|
Year I | Year II | Mean | |
Pb+2 content | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 2.466 a | 2.800 a | 2.633 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 3.233 a | 3.700 a | 3.466 b |
Mean | 2.850 a | 3.250 a | |
Ni+2 content | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 11.500 a | 11.767 a | 11.633 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 9.300 a | 9.733 a | 9.156 b |
Mean | 10.400 a | 10.750 a | |
Cu+2 content | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 12.267 a | 11.867 a | 12.067 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 9.033 a | 9.333 a | 9.183 b |
Mean | 10.650 a | 10.600 a | |
Cd+2 content | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 0.060 a | 0.196 a | 0.128 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 0.023 a | 0.030 a | 0.027 a |
Mean | 0.0417 a | 0.113 a | |
Fe+2 content | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 172.83 a | 181.60 a | 177.22 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 136.20 a | 138.43 a | 137.32 b |
Mean | 154.52 a | 160.02 a | |
Cr+2 content | |||
Unfiltered sewage wastewater | 1.500 a | 1.833 a | 1.666 a |
Filtered sewage wastewater | 0.800 a | 1.100 a | 0.950 a |
Mean | 1.150 a | 1.466 a |
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Naz, S.; Anjum, M.A.; Sadiq, B.; Ahmad, R.; Altaf, M.A.; El-Sheikh, M.A.; Shakoor, A. Purification of Sewage Wastewater though Sand Column Filter for Lessening of Heavy Metals Accumulation in Lettuce, Carrot, and Cauliflower. Water 2022, 14, 3770. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223770
Naz S, Anjum MA, Sadiq B, Ahmad R, Altaf MA, El-Sheikh MA, Shakoor A. Purification of Sewage Wastewater though Sand Column Filter for Lessening of Heavy Metals Accumulation in Lettuce, Carrot, and Cauliflower. Water. 2022; 14(22):3770. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223770
Chicago/Turabian StyleNaz, Safina, Muhammad Akbar Anjum, Bushra Sadiq, Riaz Ahmad, Muhammad Ahsan Altaf, Mohamed A. El-Sheikh, and Awais Shakoor. 2022. "Purification of Sewage Wastewater though Sand Column Filter for Lessening of Heavy Metals Accumulation in Lettuce, Carrot, and Cauliflower" Water 14, no. 22: 3770. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223770