Effect of Seawater Intrusion on the Formation of Chlorinated and Brominated Trihalomethanes in Coastal Groundwater
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Analytical Methods
2.2. Experiments
- Set 1: Varying extent of seawater intrusion
- Set 2: Varying natural organic matter concentrations
- Set 3: Varying bromide concentrations
2.3. Bromine Substitution Factor
3. Results
3.1. Effect of Seawater Intrusion on Raw Water Characteristics
3.2. Chlorine Demand
3.3. Trihalomethane Formation and Speciation
3.4. Effect of Natural Organic Matter
3.5. Effect of Chlorine Demand, Chloride, and Bromide Concentrations
3.6. Bromine Substitution Factor
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | General Experimental Procedure | Type of Seawater Used | Chlorine Dosage | Was the Effect of NOM on THM Formation Evaluated |
---|---|---|---|---|
[14] | Samples: One groundwater and one seawater sample from Florida, USA. SWI simulation: Groundwater sample diluted to achieve a constant DOC of approximately 1.4 mg/L. Seawater added to the diluted groundwater at 0–2% by volume. | Real seawater | As per UFC 1 | No |
[15] | Sample: 24 SWI-affected groundwater samples from North Carolina, USA. Chlorinated in laboratory. No SWI simulation. | - | To yield a free residual chlorine of 1 mg/L after 24 h without pH adjustment. | No |
[16] | Samples: Different coastal groundwater systems of Washington, USA. Filtered, buffered at pH 7, and chlorinated. No SWI simulation. | - | To yield a free residual chlorine of 3–5 mg/L after 7 days incubation at 25 °C. | Relative role of bromide to DOC was analysed without controlled NOM experiments |
[10] | Sample: Groundwater and seawater samples from Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. SWI simulation: Groundwater diluted to yield a DOC similar to finished water. SWI simulation by mixing diluted groundwater and 0–2% seawater by volume. | Real seawater | 2 mg/L of chlorine for a reaction period of 8 h | No |
Current study | Three sets of experiments for varying degrees of SWI, NOM, and Br concentrations (Section 2.2) | Real seawater and synthetic seawater | As per UFC, samples were analysed after 24 h and 48 h | Yes. Different concentrations of NOM, chloride, and bromide were added to the reaction mixtures to evaluate the effects on THM formation |
Type of Seawater | Seawater Intrusion (% Volume) | pH | DOC (mg/L) | Chloride (mg/L) | Chloride (mM) | Bromide (mg/L) | Bromide (mM) | Cl/Br Ratio (Mass Basis) | Cl/Br Ratio (Molar Basis) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SSW | 0% | 7.1 | 1.4 | 2.42 | 0.068 | 0 | 0 | - | - |
0.25% | 7.45 | 1.5 | 55.35 | 1.56 | 0.19 | 0.002 | 290.1 | 653.8 | |
0.5% | 7.52 | 1.6 | 118.2 | 3.33 | 0.40 | 0.005 | 290.1 | 653.9 | |
1% | 7.59 | 1.6 | 220.1 | 6.20 | 0.75 | 0.010 | 291.0 | 656.0 | |
2% | 7.74 | 1.7 | 400.7 | 11.30 | 1.39 | 0.017 | 288.7 | 650.6 | |
3% | 7.98 | 1.7 | 635.9 | 17.93 | 2.19 | 0.027 | 290.9 | 655.7 | |
RSW | 0% | 7.1 | 1.4 | 2.42 | 0.068 | 0 | 0 | - | - |
0.25% | 7.65 | 1.6 | 87.1 | 2.45 | 0.52 | 0.006 | 164.6 | 371.1 | |
0.5% | 7.80 | 1.6 | 175.1 | 4.94 | 1.05 | 0.013 | 162.7 | 373.2 | |
1% | 7.95 | 1.8 | 352.4 | 9.93 | 2.12 | 0.026 | 158.1 | 373.2 | |
2% | 8.11 | 1.8 | 698.4 | 19.70 | 4.20 | 0.052 | 151.8 | 373.9 | |
3% | 8.20 | 1.9 | 1045.2 | 29.48 | 6.32 | 0.079 | 142.0 | 372.3 | |
RSW | - | 33,925.8 | 956.9 | 204.2 | 2.55 | 166.13 | 374.5 | ||
Reference seawater 1 | - | 19,862 | 560.23 | 69.05 | 0.864 | 287.64 | 648.3 |
THM | Direction of Change | Reaction Period = 24h | Reaction Period = 48h | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Change in THM Concentration Per Unit Change in Cl/Br Ratio (µM of THM Per Cl/Br) | p Value/R2 | Change in THM Concentration Per Unit Change in Cl/Br Ratio (µM of THM Per Cl/Br) | p Value/R2 | ||
TCM | Increase | 2.44 × 10−4 | 0.01/0.91 | 4.13 × 10−4 | 0.02/0.84 |
BDCM | Decrease | 2.02 × 10−4 | 0.006/0.94 | 1.08 × 10−4 | 0.007/0.93 |
DBCM | Decrease | 5.50 × 10−4 | 0.029/0.84 | insignificant | p > 0.05 |
TBM | Decrease | 9.27 × 10−4 | 0.003/0.96 | 1 × 10−3 | 0.004/0.96 |
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Parveen, N.; Goel, S. Effect of Seawater Intrusion on the Formation of Chlorinated and Brominated Trihalomethanes in Coastal Groundwater. Water 2022, 14, 3579. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213579
Parveen N, Goel S. Effect of Seawater Intrusion on the Formation of Chlorinated and Brominated Trihalomethanes in Coastal Groundwater. Water. 2022; 14(21):3579. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213579
Chicago/Turabian StyleParveen, Naseeba, and Sudha Goel. 2022. "Effect of Seawater Intrusion on the Formation of Chlorinated and Brominated Trihalomethanes in Coastal Groundwater" Water 14, no. 21: 3579. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213579