Spatial Variability of Preferential Flow and Infiltration Redistribution along a Rocky-Mountain Hillslope, Northern China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Experimental Procedure
2.3. Image Analysis Techniques
2.4. Preferential Flow Indices
2.5. Evaluation of Infiltration Spatial Redistribution
2.5.1. Non–Uniformity Analysis of Infiltration Depth
2.5.2. Fractal Dimension of the Preferential Flow Wetting Front
2.6. Correlation and Error Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Degree of Preferential Flow
3.2. Spatial Redistribution of Infiltration
3.3. Factors Impacting Preferential Flow and Infiltration Redistribution
4. Conclusions
- (1)
- With increasing hillslope position, the total dye coverage, maximum infiltration depth, and saturation steady infiltration rate all showed obvious increasing trends; the contribution of preferential flow to the actual water infiltration gradually increased with plot elevation, whereby the value of the mean preferential flow fraction (PF-fr) was 0.10, 0.11, 0.15, 0.29, and 0.26 for the bottom–, lower–, mid–, upper–, and top–slope positions, respectively.
- (2)
- The non–uniformity of the spatial redistribution of the soil water infiltration gradually increased with the rise in hillslope position. The mean non-uniformity coefficient (Cμ) of the actual water infiltration maximum depth at the bottom–, lower–, mid–, upper–, and top–slope positions was 0.12, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16, and 0.24 in orthogonal direction to the stained section, and 0.10, 0.08, 0.17, 0.15, and 0.19 in the parallel section direction, respectively. The dimension fraction (Df) value of the actual water infiltration wet front curve for five hillslope positions was 1.2015, 1.2561, 1.3257, 1.3525, and 1.4055 for the bottom–, lower–, mid–, upper–, and top–slope positions, respectively. Additionally, the degree of non–uniformity of the spatial redistribution for macropore flow revealed by the BBFCF dying pattern was larger than that of the actual water flow revealed by the KI–starch dying pattern.
- (3)
- The GMR, θsat, altitude, Ks, Φroot-stained were found to be the main positive factors impacting the degree of preferential flow and spatial non–uniformity of the infiltration redistribution. A lower BD and lower clay content could effectively promote preferential flow and the spatial distribution of heterogeneity.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Plot | Altitude (m) | Hillslope Position | Hillslope Aspect | Hillslope Gradient (°) | Main Plant Type | Φroot (‰) | Φroot-stained (‰) | Droot (cm) | Land Coverage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 101 | Bottom | SW | 5 | DT: Platycladus orientalis CT: Robinia pseudoacacia Linn. S: Ziziphus jujuba Mill | 11.09 ± 1.11 | 2.07 ± 0.73 | 55 | 85 |
B | 126 | Lower | SW | 17 | DT: Platycladus orientalis CT: Robinia pseudoacacia Linn. S: Ziziphus jujuba Mill | 8.87 ± 1.45 | 1.88 ± 0.55 | 48 | 80 |
C | 163 | Middle | SW | 29 | DT: Platycladus orientalis S: Ziziphus jujuba Mill, Vitex negundo L. | 3.59 ± 0.71 | 2.97 ± 0.43 | 35 | 80 |
D | 184 | Upper | SW | 25 | DT: Platycladus orientalis S: Ziziphus jujuba Mill, Vitex negundo L. | 9.26 ± 1.22 | 8.40 ± 1.49 | 39 | 75 |
E | 203 | Top | SW | 21 | DT: Platycladus orientalis S: Ziziphus jujuba Mill, Vitex negundo L. | 8.39 ± 1.61 | 7.87 ± 0.79 | 50 | 70 |
Plot | ST (cm) | BD (g/cm3) | GMR (%) | Ks (mm/min) | FC (%) | θint (%) | θsat (%) | Particle Size | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clay < 0.002 mm (%) | Silt 0.002–0.02 mm (%) | Sand 0.002–2 mm (%) | ||||||||
A | 95 | 1.72 ± 0.09 a | 4.36 ± 0.16 a | 0.47 ± 0.05 a | 19.85 ± 1.28 a | 13.08 ± 1.75 a | 25.08 ± 3.77 a | 22.38 ± 1.18 a | 47.87 ± 1.28 a | 29.58 ± 2.42 a |
B | 43 | 1.73 ± 0.02 a | 31.88 ± 11.05 b | 0.54 ± 0.07 a,b | 21.54 ± 4.21 a | 11.89 ± 0.73 a | 24.62 ± 3.73 a | 29.73 ± 1.14 a,b | 44.61 ± 1.81 a | 23.10 ± 2.89 b |
C | 38 | 1.6 ± 0.09 a | 74.18 ± 6.64 c | 0.72 ± 0.69 a,b | 18.69 ± 2.08 a | 14.49 ± 2.25 a | 26.72 ± 2.82 a | 13.85 ± 1.98 b | 32.53 ± 3.45 a | 46.83 ± 1.21 c |
D | 25 | 1.54 ± 0.19 a | 83.73 ± 9.33 c | 0.81 ± 0.26 a,b | 21.48 ± 0.86 a | 12.74 ± 4.41 a | 29.80 ± 3.56 a | 10.76 ± 2.11 c | 27.56 ± 2.77 b | 46.66 ± 4.21 c |
E | 16.5 | 1.53 ± 0.19 a | 77.49 ± 8.03 c | 1.24 ± 0.80 b | 19.78 ± 1.76 a | 13.62 ± 2.77 a | 30.39 ± 8.85 a | 14.43 ± 2.51 d | 29.96 ± 4.10 b | 45.51 ± 2.18 c |
BBFCF | KI–Starch | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plot | Ave. Cμ | Ran. Cμ | Std. Cμ | Ave. Cμ | Ran. Cμ | Std. Cμ | |
InOrD | A | 0.22 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.07 |
B | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.03 | |
C | 0.32 | 0.27 | 0.08 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.03 | |
D | 0.35 | 0.44 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.23 | 0.06 | |
E | 0.41 | 0.42 | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.07 | |
InPaD | A | 0.11 | 0.16 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.17 | 0.04 |
B | 0.19 | 0.294 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.03 | |
C | 0.23 | 0.44 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.19 | 0.07 | |
D | 0.32 | 0.79 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.36 | 0.06 | |
E | 0.38 | 0.83 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.48 | 0.11 |
BBFCF | KI–Starch | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Plot | Df | R2 | Df | R2 |
A | 1.21 ± 0.03 | 0.9952 | 1.20 ± 0.06 | 0.9941 |
B | 1.27 ± 0.02 | 0.9946 | 1.26 ± 0.04 | 0.9959 |
C | 1.39 ± 0.03 | 0.9904 | 1.33 ± 0.04 | 0.9940 |
D | 1.43 ± 0.03 | 0.9892 | 1.35 ± 0.05 | 0.9924 |
E | 1.45 ± 0.05 | 0.9868 | 1.41 ± 0.06 | 0.9938 |
Altitude (m) | Slope Gradient (°) | ST (cm) | BD (g·cm−3) | GMR (%) | Ks (mm·min−1) | FC (%) | θint (%) | θsat (%) | Clay (%) | Silt (%) | Sand (%) | Φroot (‰) | Φroot-stained (‰) | Droot (cm) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BBFCF | TotDC | 0.753 | 0.413 | −0.558 | −0.839 | 0.706 | 0.619 | 0.239 | 0.095 | 0.906 * | −0.809 | −0.809 | 0.729 | 0.130 | 0.956 * | −0.305 |
MaxID | 0.941 * | 0.858 | −0.814 | −0.962 ** | 0.974 ** | 0.782 | −0.270 | 0.593 | 0.855 | −0.982 ** | −0.891 * | 0.954 * | −0.574 | 0.764 | −0.680 | |
UniID | −0.930 * | −0.655 | 0.734 | 0.987 ** | −0.897 * | −0.808 | 0.069 | −0.410 | −0.972 ** | 0.961 ** | 0.921 * | −0.917 * | 0.228 | −0.938 * | 0.473 | |
Ave.Cμ in PaD | 0.924 * | 0.585 | −0.680 | −0.974 ** | 0.839 | 0.902 * | −0.310 | 0.587 | 0.950 * | −0.893 * | −0.901 * | 0.923 * | −0.296 | 0.861 | −0.346 | |
Ave.Cμ in OrD | 0.984 ** | 0.631 | −0.866 | −0.952 * | 0.880 * | 0.949 * | −0.005 | 0.297 | 0.966 ** | −0.733 | −0.908 * | 0.782 | −0.207 | 0.924 * | −0.315 | |
Std.Cμ in PaD | 0.949 * | 0.669 | −0.814 | −0.968 ** | 0.908 * | 0.819 | 0.086 | 0.262 | 0.974 ** | −0.840 | −0.957 * | 0.843 | −0.176 | 0.964 ** | −0.456 | |
Std.Cμ in OrD | 0.967 ** | 0.600 | −0.813 | −0.941 * | 0.845 | 0.984 ** | −0.188 | 0.442 | 0.936 * | −0.734 | −0.872 | 0.803 | −0.281 | 0.855 | −0.268 | |
Df | 0.990 ** | 0.746 | −0.895 * | −0.976 ** | 0.979 ** | 0.861 | −0.114 | 0.441 | 0.913 * | −0.984 ** | −0.824 | 0.888 * | −0.452 | 0.846 | −0.579 | |
KI–starch | TotDC | 0.964 ** | 0.796 | −0.919 * | −0.936 * | 0.961 ** | 0.793 | 0.129 | 0.222 | 0.908 * | −0.967 ** | −0.761 | 0.800 | −0.313 | 0.894 * | −0.571 |
MaxID | 0.932 * | 0.810 | −0.767 | −0.973 ** | 0.973 ** | 0.792 | −0.305 | 0.625 | 0.875 | −0.975 ** | −0.891 * | 0.954 * | −0.533 | 0.781 | −0.638 | |
UniID | 0.790 | 0.245 | −0.636 | −0.781 | 0.603 | 0.833 | 0.276 | −0.034 | 0.918 * | −0.685 | −0.564 | 0.536 | 0.275 | 0.954 * | 0.053 | |
Ave.Cμ in PaD | 0.820 | 0.289 | −0.637 | −0.780 | 0.598 | 0.977 ** | −0.171 | 0.324 | 0.849 | −0.532 | −0.644 | 0.590 | −0.027 | 0.777 | 0.096 | |
Ave.Cμ in OrD | 0.397 | 0.035 | −0.560 | −0.214 | 0.211 | 0.494 | 0.654 | −0.590 | 0.379 | 0.192 | −0.182 | −0.153 | 0.383 | 0.471 | 0.301 | |
Std.Cμ in PaD | 0.907 * | 0.442 | −0.724 | −0.918 * | 0.766 | 0.903 * | 0.081 | 0.203 | 0.989 ** | −0.740 | −0.838 | 0.736 | 0.032 | 0.981 ** | −0.156 | |
Std.Cμ in OrD | 0.625 | 0.052 | −0.570 | −0.514 | 0.358 | 0.827 | 0.212 | −0.128 | 0.668 | −0.160 | −0.385 | 0.205 | 0.285 | 0.673 | 0.360 | |
Df | 0.997 ** | 0.746 | −0.895 * | −0.962 ** | 0.935 * | 0.934 * | −0.136 | 0.429 | 0.922 * | −0.940 * | 0.762 | 0.839 | −0.398 | 0.847 | −0.447 | |
PF–fr | 0.877 | 0.541 | −0.728 | −0.912 * | 0.818 | 0.754 | 0.216 | 0.127 | 0.962 ** | −0.890 * | 0.799 | 0.765 | 0.007 | 0.989 ** | −0.353 |
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Zhao, S.-y.; Jia, Y.-w.; Gong, J.-g.; Niu, C.-w.; Su, H.-d.; Gan, Y.-d.; Liu, H. Spatial Variability of Preferential Flow and Infiltration Redistribution along a Rocky-Mountain Hillslope, Northern China. Water 2020, 12, 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041102
Zhao S-y, Jia Y-w, Gong J-g, Niu C-w, Su H-d, Gan Y-d, Liu H. Spatial Variability of Preferential Flow and Infiltration Redistribution along a Rocky-Mountain Hillslope, Northern China. Water. 2020; 12(4):1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041102
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Si-yuan, Yang-wen Jia, Jia-guo Gong, Cun-wen Niu, Hui-dong Su, Yong-de Gan, and Huan Liu. 2020. "Spatial Variability of Preferential Flow and Infiltration Redistribution along a Rocky-Mountain Hillslope, Northern China" Water 12, no. 4: 1102. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041102