Hydrochemical Parameters to Assess the Evolutionary Process of CO2-Rich Spring Water: A Suggestion for Evaluating CO2 Leakage Stages in Silicate Rocks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Methods
3.1. Sampling and Analytical Methods
3.2. Geophysical Exploration
4. Results
4.1. Hydrochemcial and Isotopic Compositions
4.2. Geophysical Survey
5. Discussion
5.1. Source and Discharge Pathways of CO2
5.2. Hydrochemical Evolutionary Processes
5.2.1. Group I and II
5.2.2. Group III and IV
5.3. Useful Hydrochemical Parameters
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group | Sample ID | Sampling Date | Temp. (°C) | pH | Eh (mV) | EC (µS/cm) | DO (mg/L) | PCO2 * (atm) | TDS (mg/L) | Concentration (mg/L) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca | Mg | Na | K | SiO2 | F | Cl | NO3 | SO4 | HCO3 | ||||||||||
I | G-1 | February-2013 | 10.8 | 4.92 | 517.6 | 214 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 328.9 | 40.19 | 6.15 | 19.16 | 0.63 | 63.14 | 0.30 | 9.54 | 1.64 | 4.89 | 182.08 |
February-2014 | 8.0 | 5.38 | 378.5 | 217 | 3.6 | 0.7 | 280.1 | 47.43 | 2.95 | 13.07 | 0.67 | 38.52 | 0.36 | 8.31 | 1.43 | 4.76 | 161.70 | ||
March-2015 | 11.4 | 5.13 | 424.9 | 222 | 3.2 | 0.8 | 200.3 | 25.36 | 2.33 | 14.88 | 0.57 | 41.04 | 0.35 | 7.63 | 1.38 | 4.71 | 100.68 | ||
Average | 10.1 | 5.14 | 440.3 | 217.6 | 3.0 | 1.2 | 269.8 | 37.7 | 3.8 | 15.7 | 0.6 | 47.6 | 0.3 | 8.5 | 1.5 | 4.8 | 148.2 | ||
II | G-2 | February-2013 | 14.3 | 6.20 | 490.9 | 2100 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 2983.8 | 355.82 | 114.19 | 212.51 | 8.26 | 72.15 | 1.37 | 31.76 | 0.34 | 37.19 | 2144.43 |
February-2014 | 8.7 | 6.40 | 299.2 | 2725 | 2.2 | 0.7 | 2727.5 | 271.70 | 87.24 | 232.93 | 9.87 | 57.58 | 1.27 | 28.30 | 0.19 | 43.35 | 1989.17 | ||
March-2015 | - | 6.23 | 296.0 | 2588 | 1.6 | 1.0 | 2632.5 | 249.70 | 106.55 | 219.33 | 8.58 | 47.56 | 0.76 | 25.53 | 0.17 | 46.59 | 1912.95 | ||
G-3 | February-2014 | 9.5 | 6.44 | 297.1 | 2816 | 1.6 | 0.6 | 2575.9 | 238.25 | 131.65 | 171.46 | 7.60 | 69.19 | 1.46 | 23.75 | 1.64 | 29.20 | 1897.72 | |
March-2015 | - | 6.21 | 285.5 | 2858 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 2485.2 | 196.83 | 130.16 | 178.17 | 7.25 | 73.16 | 0.41 | 9.15 | 0.96 | 13.14 | 1861.10 | ||
Average | 10.8 | 6.30 | 333.7 | 2617.4 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 2681.0 | 262.5 | 114.0 | 202.9 | 8.3 | 63.9 | 1.1 | 23.7 | 0.7 | 33.9 | 1961.1 | ||
III | G-4 | February-2014 | 12.2 | 6.08 | 300.8 | 1979 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 1838.1 | 230.14 | 67.76 | 87.73 | 4.36 | 63.84 | 0.49 | 13.92 | 0.09 | 15.40 | 1348.52 |
March-2015 | - | 6.16 | 340.4 | 1984 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 2008.5 | 257.27 | 74.07 | 91.06 | 4.01 | 66.50 | 0.01 | 9.31 | 0.03 | 14.02 | 1479.67 | ||
G-5 | February-2013 | 13.6 | 6.35 | 277.7 | 3240 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 2817.5 | 318.55 | 137.89 | 120.24 | 4.93 | 110.20 | 0.80 | 16.33 | 0.73 | 18.85 | 2085.38 | |
February-2014 | 11.4 | 6.48 | 262.8 | 3190 | 3.0 | 0.5 | 2295.5 | 297.74 | 87.60 | 91.36 | 5.03 | 80.06 | 1.10 | 16.89 | 0.71 | 18.82 | 1693.41 | ||
March-2015 | 14.1 | 6.19 | 259.9 | 2980 | 1.8 | 1.0 | 2409.3 | 301.15 | 97.82 | 97.02 | 4.66 | 92.11 | 0.52 | 12.37 | 0.27 | 16.93 | 1769.67 | ||
Average | 12.8 | 6.25 | 288.3 | 2674.6 | 1.6 | 0.8 | 2273.8 | 281.0 | 93.0 | 97.5 | 4.6 | 82.5 | 0.6 | 13.8 | 0.4 | 16.8 | 1675.3 | ||
IV | G-6 | February-2013 | 11.6 | 6.03 | 489.0 | 2046 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 2893.9 | 544.48 | 72.28 | 47.62 | 1.71 | 94.37 | 1.14 | 12.83 | 0.05 | 9.36 | 2103.73 |
February-2014 | 11.0 | 6.24 | 321.4 | 2125 | 2.4 | 0.7 | 2108.3 | 396.64 | 41.39 | 36.18 | 1.76 | 69.16 | 1.33 | 13.71 | 0.37 | 8.88 | 1510.17 | ||
March-2015 | 12.5 | 5.96 | 258.8 | 2007 | 0.8 | 1.7 | 2458.0 | 460.05 | 41.31 | 36.67 | 1.55 | 71.61 | 0.61 | 9.18 | 0.05 | 8.91 | 1800.01 | ||
G-7 | February-2014 | 8.2 | 6.08 | 361.7 | 1500 | 2.6 | 0.7 | 1381.1 | 223.73 | 53.12 | 19.84 | 2.47 | 79.45 | 0.23 | 8.96 | 0.50 | 5.31 | 970.17 | |
G-8 | February-2013 | 5.0 | 6.30 | 349.9 | 908 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 1554.3 | 266.16 | 46.91 | 71.42 | 2.64 | 52.75 | 0.42 | 11.47 | 0.57 | 21.99 | 1057.12 | |
Average | 9.7 | 6.12 | 356.2 | 1717.2 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 2079.1 | 378.2 | 51.0 | 42.3 | 2.0 | 73.5 | 0.7 | 11.2 | 0.3 | 10.9 | 1488.2 |
Group | Sample ID | Sampling Date | Concentration (µg/L) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fe | Mn | Al | Sr | Li | Zn | As | U | Ba | |||
I | G-1 | February-2013 | n.d. | 133 | 197.0 | 226 | 9.7 | 16.5 | n.a. | n.a. | 166.0 |
February-2014 | 12.6 | 51 | 237.2 | 381 | 8.2 | 22.0 | n.a. | n.a. | 174.2 | ||
March-2015 | 1.8 | 91 | 171.7 | 429 | 0.0 | 14.9 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 189.0 | ||
Average | 7.2 | 91.7 | 202.0 | 345.3 | 6.0 | 17.8 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 176.4 | ||
II | G-2 | February-2013 | - | 1367 | 2.7 | 3542 | 945.0 | 17.5 | n.a. | n.a. | 126.0 |
February-2014 | - | 99 | 32.9 | 4107 | 1356.3 | 30.7 | n.a. | n.a. | 164.9 | ||
March-2015 | 6842.0 | 1023 | 6.5 | 5236 | 997.0 | 12.1 | 10.4 | 15.4 | 134.1 | ||
G-3 | February-2014 | - | 464 | 29.3 | 3047 | 1147.3 | 16.9 | n.a. | n.a. | 253.7 | |
March-2015 | 9581.0 | 869 | 18.0 | 3795 | 955.0 | 7.8 | 55.5 | 18.4 | 235.3 | ||
Average | 8211.5 | 764.4 | 17.9 | 3945.4 | 1080.1 | 17.0 | 32.9 | 16.9 | 182.8 | ||
III | G-4 | February-2014 | - | 845 | 23.9 | 4114 | 437.0 | 51.7 | n.a. | n.a. | 326.9 |
March-2015 | 5390.0 | 1122 | 0.7 | 4290 | 359.0 | 8.9 | 4.5 | 5.0 | 303.9 | ||
G-5 | February-2013 | - | - | 1.1 | 3496 | 501.0 | 13.4 | n.a. | n.a. | 306.0 | |
February-2014 | - | - | 73.1 | 2100 | 435.8 | 6.4 | n.a. | n.a. | 294.2 | ||
March-2015 | 11,260.0 | 924 | 2.5 | 3520 | 353.0 | 13.8 | 4.0 | 14.1 | 426.3 | ||
Average | 8325.0 | 963.7 | 20.3 | 3504.0 | 417.2 | 18.8 | 4.3 | 9.5 | 331.5 | ||
IV | G-6 | February-2013 | - | 2106 | 10.8 | 3237 | 146.0 | 45.6 | n.a. | n.a. | 459.0 |
February-2014 | 22,651.4 | 2082 | 55.5 | 3313 | 131.8 | 57.1 | n.a. | n.a. | 565.9 | ||
March-2015 | 22,070.0 | 1870 | 6.3 | 3278 | 104.0 | 24.7 | 1.1 | 40.2 | 591.3 | ||
G-7 | February-2014 | 13,564.0 | 442 | 58.0 | 1650 | 93.2 | 25.9 | n.a. | n.a. | 327.6 | |
G-8 | Feb-2013 | 7949.0 | 1228 | 0.0 | 12,758 | 193.0 | 69.0 | n.a. | n.a. | 231.0 | |
Average | 16,558.6 | 1545.6 | 26.1 | 4847.2 | 133.6 | 44.5 | 1.1 | 40.2 | 435.0 | ||
Surface water in the study area (1) | 24~300 | 1~51 | 1.4~554 | 32~450 | 0.6~49.9 | 0.2~4.2 | 0.6~1.3 | 0.1~1.0 | 5.0~307.0 | ||
Shallow groundwater in the study area (2) | 19~100 | n.d. | 3.5~9 | 50~94 | 0.6~108 | 2.1~6.3 | 50.1 | n.d. | 19.6~28.0 | ||
Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality in Chemical Aspects (WHO) (3) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 10 | 30 | 1300 | ||
Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality in Acceptability Aspects (WHO) (4) | 300 | 100 | 100 | - | - | 4000 | - | - | - |
Group | Sample ID | δ18O (‰) | δD (‰) | δ13C (‰) | 14C (pMC) | Age (BP) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | G-1 | −8.8 | −60.8 | −1.3 | 1.2 | 35,720 ± 330 |
−8.7 | −58.3 | −5.8 | n.a. | n.a. | ||
−8.9 | −58.6 | −6.3 | 0.6 | 41,190 ± 560 | ||
II | G-2 | −9.4 | −64.7 | −1.0 | n.a. | n.a. |
−9.7 | −64.3 | −0.6 | n.a. | n.a. | ||
−9.4 | −63.1 | −3.2 | 0.0 | >43,500 | ||
G-3 | −10.2 | −68.6 | −2.8 | n.a. | n.a. | |
−10.2 | −70.3 | −4.8 | 0.0 | >43,500 | ||
III | G-4 | −9.1 | −62.0 | −3.8 | n.a. | n.a. |
−9.1 | −62.6 | −2.1 | 0.0 | >43,500 | ||
G-5 | −9.2 | −62.5 | −3.2 | 0.7 | 40,010 ± 500 | |
−9.2 | −59.0 | −1.8 | n.a. | n.a. | ||
−9.2 | −59.5 | −2.3 | 0.0 | >43,500 | ||
IV | G-6 | −9.1 | −61.3 | −2.9 | 0.0 | >43,500 |
−9.0 | −58.7 | −3.7 | n.a. | n.a. | ||
−9.1 | −59.0 | −3.1 | 0.0 | >43,500 | ||
G-7 | −9.5 | −61.4 | −4.0 | n.a. | n.a. | |
G-8 | −9.1 | −62.1 | −4.1 | n.a. | n.a. |
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Do, H.-K.; Yu, S.; Yun, S.-T. Hydrochemical Parameters to Assess the Evolutionary Process of CO2-Rich Spring Water: A Suggestion for Evaluating CO2 Leakage Stages in Silicate Rocks. Water 2020, 12, 3421. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123421
Do H-K, Yu S, Yun S-T. Hydrochemical Parameters to Assess the Evolutionary Process of CO2-Rich Spring Water: A Suggestion for Evaluating CO2 Leakage Stages in Silicate Rocks. Water. 2020; 12(12):3421. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123421
Chicago/Turabian StyleDo, Hyun-Kwon, Soonyoung Yu, and Seong-Taek Yun. 2020. "Hydrochemical Parameters to Assess the Evolutionary Process of CO2-Rich Spring Water: A Suggestion for Evaluating CO2 Leakage Stages in Silicate Rocks" Water 12, no. 12: 3421. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123421