Spatio-Temporal Variations of Hydrochemical and Microbial Characteristics in Karst Water in Samcheok, South Korea
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Areas and Methods
2.1. Study Areas
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Field Survey
2.2.2. Cation/Anion Analysis
2.2.3. Stable Isotope Analysis
2.2.4. Precipitated Matter Analysis (SEM, XRD)
2.2.5. Saturation Index (SI)
2.2.6. Microbial Cluster Analysis
2.2.7. Laboratory Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Hydrochemical Characteristics of Karst Water (Groundwater and Surface Water)
3.2. Seasonal Hydrochemical Characteristics
3.3. Regional Characteristics
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Hamaengbang-ri | Gyogok-ri | Yeosam-ri | Downtown Area | Groundwater | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Max. | Min. | Mean | SD * | CV. ** | Max. | Min. | Mean | SD* | CV. ** | Max. | Min. | Mean | SD * | CV. ** | Max. | Min. | Mean | SD * | CV. ** | Max. | Min. | Mean | SD * | CV. ** | |
Temperature (°C) | 20.0 | 4.4 | 12.1 | 5.0 | 41.5 | 21.0 | 5.0 | 13.9 | 5.1 | 36.9 | 16.0 | 7.7 | 12.3 | 3.4 | 27.8 | 15.4 | 8.9 | 12.3 | 2.3 | 19.1 | 17.1 | 9.5 | 12.9 | 2.6 | 20.1 |
pH | 8.4 | 6.5 | 7.5 | 0.7 | 9.2 | 8.6 | 5.9 | 7.4 | 1.0 | 13.7 | 8.5 | 7.2 | 8.1 | 0.6 | 7.2 | 8.3 | 6.9 | 7.7 | 0.4 | 5.8 | 7.3 | 5.5 | 6.5 | 0.6 | 9.1 |
EC (μS/cm) | 541.0 | 183.7 | 235.2 | 76.2 | 32.4 | 504.0 | 213.0 | 340.8 | 68.5 | 20.1 | 305.0 | 255.0 | 283.8 | 18.6 | 6.5 | 4960.0 | 423.0 | 1534.8 | 1832.6 | 119.4 | 688.0 | 96.6 | 298.7 | 165.4 | 55.4 |
Ca2+ (mg/L) | 60.2 | 24.5 | 39.6 | 8.4 | 21.1 | 76.6 | 29.0 | 62.2 | 15.0 | 24.2 | 59.6 | 45.1 | 51.8 | 5.2 | 10.1 | 76.8 | 66.4 | 72.0 | 4.0 | 5.5 | 113.2 | 11.1 | 35.1 | 31.3 | 89.3 |
Mg2+ (mg/L) | 4.6 | 1.0 | 3.1 | 0.7 | 21.1 | 6.4 | 3.8 | 5.1 | 0.8 | 15.2 | 5.9 | 4.8 | 5.1 | 0.4 | 8.2 | 107.7 | 7.3 | 40.5 | 49.0 | 147.9 | 13.1 | 1.9 | 5.8 | 3.5 | 60.7 |
Na+ (mg/L) | 6.3 | 1.9 | 4.3 | 0.9 | 20.5 | 9.4 | 4.8 | 6.2 | 1.3 | 21.6 | 5.4 | 3.8 | 4.7 | 0.6 | 12.8 | 837.0 | 9.2 | 285.3 | 421.9 | 147.9 | 18.9 | 4.4 | 10.5 | 4.9 | 46.6 |
K+ (mg/L) | 13.2 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 2.7 | 181.0 | 5.3 | 0.8 | 2.3 | 1.1 | 49.0 | 2.1 | 0.7 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 48.1 | 60.5 | 3.0 | 20.1 | 236 | 117.2 | 11.5 | 0.9 | 3.7 | 3.6 | 98.3 |
HCO3− (mg/L) | 114.6 | 30.5 | 67.8 | 22.6 | 33.3 | 155.9 | 38.4 | 81.7 | 293 | 35.8 | 135.3 | 70.5 | 93.0 | 25.9 | 27.9 | 99.6 | 26.7 | 63.9 | 27.1 | 42.4 | 88.3 | 26.8 | 48.6 | 19.4 | 39.9 |
SO42− (mg/L) | 8.0 | 2.8 | 5.6 | 1.2 | 20.7 | 11.8 | 6.2 | 8.7 | 1.7 | 19.9 | 7.0 | 5.4 | 6.1 | 0.7 | 12.0 | 257.0 | 37.9 | 121.1 | 97.6 | 80.6 | 52.9 | 0.0 | 21.9 | 20.5 | 93.6 |
Cl− (mg/L) | 13.2 | 4.0 | 8.0 | 2.2 | 27.6 | 41.2 | 5.5 | 15.2 | 11.6 | 76.7 | 12.9 | 7.7 | 10.1 | 2.3 | 22.3 | 1652.1 | 14.9 | 533.8 | 793.0 | 148.5 | 29.2 | 6.8 | 15.5 | 8.4 | 54.2 |
NO3− (mg/L) | 9.5 | 3.4 | 5.4 | 1.5 | 26.8 | 55.4 | 4.8 | 31.9 | 21.6 | 67.9 | 8.2 | 5.9 | 6.9 | 1.0 | 14.6 | 19.9 | 7.4 | 14.4 | 5.2 | 36.2 | 33.4 | 0.0 | 8.2 | 12.2 | 148.7 |
CO32− (mg/L) | 1.8 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 114.6 | 2.2 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 118.3 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 73.0 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 70.8 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 152.1 |
δ13C (‰) | −8.1 | −14.3 | −10.3 | 2.0 | −19.6 | −7.8 | −14.2 | −10.4 | 1.9 | −18.4 | −8.4 | −13.5 | −10.3 | 2.1 | −20.2 | −8.1 | −11.2 | −9.0 | 1.1 | −12.6 | 4.0 | −14.4 | −8.5 | 5.3 | −61.7 |
δ18O (‰) | −7.8 | −9.0 | −8.6 | 0.3 | −3.4 | −7.8 | −8.5 | −8.1 | 0.2 | −2.8 | −8.4 | −8.7 | −8.5 | 0.1 | −1.4 | −8.1 | −8.5 | −8.3 | 0.2 | −2.2 | −7.4 | −8.8 | −8.0 | 0.5 | −6.1 |
δD (‰) | −49.9 | −57.3 | −57.3 | 1.9 | −3.5 | −45.8 | −52.2 | −49.6 | 2.0 | −4.0 | −52.0 | −55.0 | −53.3 | 1.1 | −2.0 | −51.5 | −55.5 | −53.2 | 1.7 | −3.2 | −47.1 | −56.4 | −50.7 | 3.1 | −6.1 |
CBE *** | −3.00 | 1.29 | −4.05 | −0.11 | 3.70 |
Sampling Point | Target Reads | OTUs | ACE | CHAO | Jackknife | NPShannon | Shannon | Phylogenetic Diversity | Good’s Library Coverage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SJS4 | 63,288 | 1990 | 2072.5 | 2031.7 | 2180.0 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 2617 | 99.70 |
HMS1 | 35,085 | 3054 | 3591.9 | 3362.2 | 3786.0 | 6.4 | 6.3 | 3776 | 97.91 |
YSS3 | 47,840 | 4082 | 4558.3 | 4299.3 | 4830.0 | 6.8 | 6.6 | 4576 | 98.44 |
HMS14 | 17,577 | 1167 | 1486.4 | 1350.8 | 1520.0 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 1842 | 97.99 |
SJS1 | 34,284 | 4001 | 4594.5 | 4299.8 | 4871.0 | 7.0 | 6.8 | 4969 | 97.46 |
HMS2 | 37,307 | 5392 | 6100.3 | 5744.5 | 6487.0 | 7.6 | 7.4 | 6222 | 97.06 |
HMS11 | 20,099 | 1359 | 1774.7 | 1583.0 | 1808.0 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 2285 | 97.77 |
HMS8 | 33,959 | 4184 | 4918.9 | 4582.0 | 5201.0 | 6.7 | 6.5 | 5195 | 97.01 |
KGS1–1 | 38,534 | 992 | 1117.7 | 1041.9 | 1185.0 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 1309 | 99.50 |
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Ryu, H.-S.; Kim, H.; Lee, J.-Y.; Jang, J.; Park, S. Spatio-Temporal Variations of Hydrochemical and Microbial Characteristics in Karst Water in Samcheok, South Korea. Water 2020, 12, 3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123407
Ryu H-S, Kim H, Lee J-Y, Jang J, Park S. Spatio-Temporal Variations of Hydrochemical and Microbial Characteristics in Karst Water in Samcheok, South Korea. Water. 2020; 12(12):3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123407
Chicago/Turabian StyleRyu, Han-Sun, Heejung Kim, Jin-Yong Lee, Jiwook Jang, and Sangwook Park. 2020. "Spatio-Temporal Variations of Hydrochemical and Microbial Characteristics in Karst Water in Samcheok, South Korea" Water 12, no. 12: 3407. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123407