In-Channel Managed Aquifer Recharge: A Review of Current Development Worldwide and Future Potential in Europe
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Section 2 details the types of in-channel MAR features included in the review, their main characteristics, and modes of recharge.
- Section 3 describes the review methodology and information sources.
- Section 4 describes recharge dam occurrence, site selection, hydrogeology and water balance, characteristics and effectiveness, and the recharge benefits. This section includes a systematic review of 79 recharge dams identified in the literature.
- Section 5 describes sand storage dam occurrence, site selection, hydrogeology and water balance, characteristics and effectiveness. This section is a narrative review of sand storage dams mainly found in Africa.
- Section 6 describes other in-channel modifications including in-channel infiltration basins, but also includes natural flood management (NFM) measures and the natural actions of beavers and their contribution to increasing recharge.
- Section 7 identifies the applicability and potential for these techniques to be developed in Europe.
- Section 8 describes the main conclusions and recommendations.
2. Types of In-Channel Modification
- Sand storage dams are constructed aboveground in intermittent streams, trapping sediment behind the dam, so that future runoff infiltrates, creating an artificial aquifer upstream of the dam. They are usually of earthen, stone, or concrete construction, and are common in parts of Africa and China.
- Recharge/check dams, including:
- Wadi-recharge dam structures to intercept runoff during flash floods in wadi environments, typically with controlled release downstream where most of the recharge occurs.
- Rubber dams across relatively large rivers. These flexible elliptical structures are made of rubberized material and attached to a concrete base, inflated by air/water, and deflated as necessary to flush out sediments and prevent damage during extreme floods. For MAR, these appear to be mainly used in China, and are commonly used in California.
- Small dam structures across small streams, often of earthen, concrete, or gabion construction, are particularly common in India where they are known as check dams, nalah bunds, anicuts, or johads.
- Erosion/sediment control dams, generally in mountainous areas with large catchment slopes, which may also enhance recharge. Once full of sediment, these could be considered sand storage dams.
- Debris or leaky dams, which form either naturally or by the natural activities of beavers, or are constructed as part of “natural flood management” measures, or river restoration activities that slow river flow and enhance recharge.
- Channel spreading techniques, which increase the wetted area and infiltration rate of the streambed by widening, leveling, scarifying, dredging, and the use of L-shaped levees.
3. Methodology
4. Recharge Dams
4.1. Occurrence
4.2. Site Selection
- The recharge dam needs to be upstream/upgradient from where the recharged water is required, and close enough to this location that the additional recharge can be captured/used.
- Groundwater levels need to be sufficiently below the base of the stream at the time of year when recharge occurs, and more regionally, sufficient unsaturated zone thickness is needed to accept the additional recharge without causing unacceptable groundwater level rise and consequent flooding of land or damage to structures.
- The underlying strata should have sufficient permeability, such that the water held in the dam can be recharged at a sufficient rate (before the water is evaporated); i.e., low permeability alluvial deposits should not be present or should be removed during construction.
- The storage volume and retention time of the structure needs to be matched to the catchment inflow, such that sufficient volumes are recharged, balanced by the cost of providing increased storage due to increased dam size. Typically, the storage is small in comparison to peak flows, so only a small proportion of flow is captured during these events.
4.3. Hydrogeology and Water Balance
- Indirect methods, using vertical profiles of temperature time series measurements to estimate river flow duration and infiltration [50].
4.4. Recharge Dam Characteristics
4.5. Recharge Effectiveness
4.5.1. Measures of Recharge Effectiveness
- Runoff collection efficiency (RCE), defined as the dam storage capacity divided by the annual captured runoff volume.
4.5.2. Local Impacts
4.5.3. Regional Impacts
4.6. Sediment Control/Siltation
4.7. Water Quality
5. Sand Storage Dams
5.1. Occurrence
5.2. Site Selection
5.3. Hydrogeology and Water Balance
5.4. Sand Storage Dam Characteristics
5.5. Sand Storage Dam Success Factors
- -
- the additional water availability;
- -
- to what extent this meets the demand;
- -
- how the dam interacts with groundwater levels locally;
- -
- climate change resilience; and
- -
- the impacts on downstream flows and users.
5.6. Sediment Control/Siltation
5.7. Water Quality
5.8. Climate Change
6. Other In-Channel Modifications Enhancing Recharge
6.1. In-Channel Infiltration Basins
6.2. Natural Flood Management (NFM)
6.3. Beavers
7. Applicability to Europe
8. Conclusions and Recommendations
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Dillon, P.; Stuyfzand, P.; Grischek, T.; Lluria, M.; Pyne, R.D.G.; Jain, R.C.; Bear, J.; Schwarz, J.; Wang, W.; Fernandez, E.; et al. Sixty Years of Global Progress in Managed Aquifer Recharge. Hydrogeol. J. 2019, 27, 1–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Spinoni, J.; Naumann, G.; Vogt, J.V. Pan-European Seasonal Trends and Recent Changes of Drought Frequency and Severity. Glob. Planet. Change 2017, 148, 113–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gudmundsson, L.; Leonard, M.; Do, H.X.; Westra, S.; Seneviratne, S.I. Observed Trends in Global Indicators of Mean and Extreme Streamflow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2019, 46, 756–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gudmundsson, L.; Seneviratne, S.I. Observation-Based Gridded Runoff Estimates for Europe (E-RUN Version 1.1). Earth Syst. Sci. Data 2016, 8, 279–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hall, J.; Arheimer, B.; Aronica, G.T.; Bilibashi, A.; Boháč, M.; Bonacci, O.; Borga, M.; Burlando, P.; Castellarin, A.; Chirico, G.B.; et al. A European Flood Database: Facilitating Comprehensive Flood Research beyond Administrative Boundaries. Proc. IAHS 2015, 370, 89–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hankin, B.; Arnott, S.; Whiteman, M.; Burgess-Gamble, L.; Rose, S. Working with Natural Processes—Using the Evidence Base to Make the Case for Natural Flood Management; Environment Agency: Bristol, UK, 2017.
- Da Costa, L.R.D.; Monteiro, J.P.P.G.; Hugman, R.T. Assessing the Use of Harvested Greenhouse Runoff for Managed Aquifer Recharge to Improve Groundwater Status in South Portugal. Environ. Earth Sci. 2020, 79, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sprenger, C.; Hartog, N.; Hernández, M.; Vilanova, E.; Grützmacher, G.; Scheibler, F.; Hannappel, S. Inventory of Managed Aquifer Recharge Sites in Europe: Historical Development, Current Situation and Perspectives. Hydrogeol. J. 2017, 25, 1909–1922. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stefan, C.; Ansems, N. Web-Based Global Inventory of Managed Aquifer Recharge Applications. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 2018, 4, 153–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huber, A.; Scheibler, F. Catalogue of European MAR applications. DEMEAU FP7 Project. Available online: https://demeau-fp7.eu/system/files/results/d11.1 catalogue of European MAR applications_0.pdf (accessed on 24 August 2020).
- Machado, P. Bases Do Plano Regional de Eficiência Hídrica: REGIÃO DO ALGARVE; Volume I—Memória Descritiva; Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente: Amadora, Portugal, 2020; Volume 1.
- Valverde, J.P.B.; Stefan, C.; Nava, A.P.; da Silva, E.B.; Vivar, H.L.P. Inventory of Managed Aquifer Recharge Schemes in Latin America and the Caribbean. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 2018, 4, 163–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmitt, R.J.P.; Kittner, N.; Kondolf, G.M.; Kammen, D.M. Deploy Diverse Renewables to Save Tropical Rivers. Nature 2019, 569, 330–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martos-Rosillo, S.; Ruiz-Constán, A.; González-Ramón, A.; Mediavilla, R.; Martín-Civantos, J.M.; Martínez-Moreno, F.J.; Jódar, J.; Marín-Lechado, C.; Medialdea, A.; Galindo-Zaldívar, J.; et al. The Oldest Managed Aquifer Recharge System in Europe: New Insights from the Espino Recharge Channel (Sierra Nevada, Southern Spain). J. Hydrol. 2019, 578, 124047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IGRAC. Artificial Recharge of Groundwater in the World Report; IGRAC, 2007. Available online: https://www.un-igrac.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2008_IGRAC_Global%20MAR%20Inventory%20Report.pdf (accessed on 3 November 2020).
- Ishida, S.; Tsuchihara, T.; Yoshimoto, S.; Imaizumi, M. Sustainable Use of Groundwater with Underground Dams. Jpn. Agric. Res. Q. 2011, 45, 51–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Escalante, E.F.; Sauto, J.S.S.; Gil, R.C. Sites and Indicators of MAR as a Successful Tool to Mitigate Climate Change Effects in Spain. Water 2019, 11, 1943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ebrahim, Y.G.; Lautze, J.F.; Villholth, K.G. Managed Aquifer Recharge in Africa: Taking Stock and Looking Forward. Water 2020, 12, 1844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Web of Science. Available online: https://www.webofknowledge.com/ (accessed on 29 May 2020).
- Chen, X.; Ling, M.-H.; Zhou, Q.; Zhang, Z.-C.; Cheng, Q.-B. Numerical Modeling the Role of Rubber Dams on Groundwater Recharge and Phreatic Evaporation Loss in Riparian Zones. Environ. Earth Sci. 2012, 65, 345–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Djuma, H.; Bruggeman, A.; Camera, C.; Eliades, M.; Kostarelos, K. The Impact of a Check Dam on Groundwater Recharge and Sedimentation in an Ephemeral Stream. Water 2017, 9, 813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abdalla, O.A.E.; Al-Rawahi, A.S. Groundwater Recharge Dams in Arid Areas as Tools for Aquifer Replenishment and Mitigating Seawater Intrusion: Example of AlKhod, Oman. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 69, 1951–1962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Laat, P.J.M.; Nonner, J.C. Artificial Recharge with Surface Water; a Pilot Project in Wadi Madoneh, Jordan. Environ. Earth Sci. 2012, 65, 1251–1263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xanke, J.; Goeppert, N.; Sawarieh, A.; Liesch, T.; Kinger, J.; Ali, W.; Hötzl, H.; Hadidi, K.; Goldscheider, N. Impact of Managed Aquifer Recharge on the Chemical and Isotopic Composition of a Karst Aquifer, Wala Reservoir, Jordan. Hydrogeol. J. 2015, 23, 1027–1040. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salameh, E.; Abdallat, G.; van der Valk, M. Planning Considerations of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Projects in Jordan. Water 2019, 11, 182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gale, I.; Macdonald, D.; Calow, R.; Neumann, I.; Moench, M.; Kulkarni, H.; Mudrakartha, S.; Palanisami, K. Managed Aquifer Recharge: An Assessment of Its Role and Effectiveness in Watershed Management; Final Report for DFID KAR Project R8169, Augmenting Groundwater Resources by Artificial Recharge—AGRAR; British Geological Survey: Nottingham, UK, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Kulkarni, H.; Badarayani, U.; Phadnis, V. Variability and Scale Factors in Artificial Recharge from the Deccan Basalts of India: A Case Study from Kolwan Valley of Pune District in Maharashtra, India. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Management of Aquifer Recharge, ISMAR 5, Berlin, Germany, 11–16 June 2005; pp. 705–713. [Google Scholar]
- Sharda, V.N.; Kurothe, R.S.; Sena, D.R.; Pande, V.C.; Tiwari, S.P. Estimation of Groundwater Recharge from Water Storage Structures in a Semi-Arid Climate of India. J. Hydrol. 2006, 329, 224–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parimalarenganayaki, S.; Elango, L. Assessment of Effect of Recharge from a Check Dam as a Method of Managed Aquifer Recharge by Hydrogeological Investigations. Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 73, 5349–5361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dashora, Y.; Dillon, P.; Maheshwari, B.; Soni, P.; Dashora, R.; Davande, S.; Purohit, R.C.; Mittal, H.K. A Simple Method Using Farmers’ Measurements Applied to Estimate Check Dam Recharge in Rajasthan, India. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 2018, 4, 301–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glendenning, C.J.; Vervoort, R.W. Hydrological Impacts of Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) in a Case Study Catchment: The Arvari River, Rajasthan, India. Part 1: Field-Scale Impacts. Agric. Water Manag. 2010, 98, 331–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farooqi, M.A.; Sudarshan, G.; Sooryanarayana, K.R.; Manzar, A.; Sivaramakrishnan, J. Artificial Recharge Practices—Some Experimental Projects. Spec. Publ. Geol. Soc. India 2016, 5, 119–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martín-Rosales, W.; Gisbert, J.; Pulido-Bosch, A.; Vallejos, A.; Fernández-Cortés, A. Estimating Groundwater Recharge Induced by Engineering Systems in a Semiarid Area (Southeastern Spain). Environ. Geol. 2007, 52, 985–995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Muttair, B.F.F.; Sendil, U.; Al-Turbak, A.S. Management of Recharge Dams in Saudi Arabia. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 1994, 120, 749–763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alderwish, A.M. Induced Recharge at New Dam Sites—Sana’a Basin, Yemen. Arab. J. Geosci. 2010, 3, 283–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalantari, N.; Rangzan, K. Assessment of Three Water Harvesting Structures in Iran. In Proceedings of the 26th WEDC Conference, Water Sanitation and Hygiene: Challenges of the Millennium, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 5–9 November 2000; pp. 26–28. [Google Scholar]
- CGWB. Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water in India; Central Ground Water Board: New Delhi, India, 2013.
- Stonestrom, D.A.; Constantz, J. Heat as a Tool for Studying the Movement of Ground Water near Streams; USGS Circular 1260; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2008.
- Montoroi, J.-P.; Grünberger, O.; Nasri, S. Groundwater Geochemistry of a Small Reservoir Catchment in Central Tunisia. Appl. Geochem. 2002, 17, 1047–1060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, R.; Xing, L.; Xianguo, W.; Lui, Q. Experience of Capturing Flood Water for Artificial Recharge of Groundwater in North China. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Management of Aquifer Recharge, ISMAR 5, Berlin, Germany, 12–16 June 2005; pp. 727–732. [Google Scholar]
- Rahman, M.A.; Rusteberg, B.; Gogu, R.C.; Lobo Ferreira, J.P.; Sauter, M.; Ferreira, J.P.L.; Sauter, M. A New Spatial Multi-Criteria Decision Support Tool for Site Selection for Implementation of Managed Aquifer Recharge. J. Environ. Manag. 2012, 99, 61–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaliraj, S.; Chandrasekar, N.; Magesh, N.S. Evaluation of Multiple Environmental Factors for Site-Specific Groundwater Recharge Structures in the Vaigai River Upper Basin, Tamil Nadu, India, Using GIS-Based Weighted Overlay Analysis. Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 74, 4355–4380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailey, D.; Goonetilleke, A.; Campbell, D. A New Fuzzy Multicriteria Evaluation Method for Group Site Selection in GIS. J. Multi-Crit. Decis. Anal. 2003, 12, 337–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kalantari, N.; Rangzan, K.; Thigale, S.S.; Rahimi, M.H. Site Selection and Cost-Benefit Analysis for Artificial Recharge in the Baghmalek Plain, Khuzestan Province, Southwest Iran. Hydrogeol. J. 2010, 18, 761–773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- CGWB. Manual on Artificial Recharge of Groundwater; Central Ground Water Board: New Delhi, India, 2007.
- Parimalarenganayaki, S.; Elango, L. Quantification of Groundwater Recharge and River Bed Clogging by Daily Water Level Measurements in a Check Dam. Arab. J. Geosci. 2018, 11, 174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salem, S.B.H.; Chkir, N.; Zouari, K.; Cognard-Plancq, A.L.; Valles, V.; Marc, V. Natural and Artificial Recharge Investigation in the Zéroud Basin, Central Tunisia: Impact of Sidi Saad Dam Storage. Environ. Earth Sci. 2012, 66, 1099–1110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sukhija, B.S.; Reddy, D.V.; Nandakumar, M.V. A Method for Evaluation of Artificial Recharge through Percolation Tanks Using Environmental Chloride. Ground Water 1997, 35, 161–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Saqri, S.; Al-Maktoumi, A.; Al-Ismaily, S.; Kacimov, A.; Al-Busaidi, H. Hydropedology and Soil Evolution in Explaining the Hydrological Properties of Recharge Dams in Arid Zone Environments. Arab. J. Geosci. 2016, 9, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hatch, C.E.; Fisher, A.T.; Revenaugh, J.S.; Constantz, J.; Ruehl, C. Quantifying Surface Water-Groundwater Interactions Using Time Series Analysis of Streambed Thermal Records: Method Development. Water Resour. Res. 2006, 42, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Neumann, I.; Barker, J.; Macdonald, D.; Gale, I. Numerical Approaches for Approximating Technical Effectiveness of Artificial Recharge Structures; Groundwater Systems and Water Quality Programme Commissioned Report CR/04/265N; British Geological Survey: Nottingham, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Neumann, I.; Barker, J.; Macdonald, D.; Gale, I. Approximating Technical Effectiveness of Low Technology Aquifer Recharge Structures Using Simple Numerical Methods. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Management of Aquifer Recharge, ISMAR 5, Berlin, Germany, 12–16 June 2005; pp. 204–209. [Google Scholar]
- Missimer, T.M.; Guo, W.; Maliva, R.G.; Rosas, J.; Jadoon, K.Z. Enhancement of Wadi Recharge Using Dams Coupled with Aquifer Storage and Recovery Wells. Environ. Earth Sci. 2015, 73, 7723–7731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shanafield, M.; Cook, P.G. Transmission Losses, Infiltration and Groundwater Recharge through Ephemeral and Intermittent Streambeds: A Review of Applied Methods. J. Hydrol. 2014, 511, 518–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boughton, W. The Australian Water Balance Model. Environ. Model. Softw. 2004, 19, 943–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rossman, L.A. Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) User’s Manual Version 5.1; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Cincinnati, OH, USA, 2015.
- Arnold, M.D.J.G. Large Area Hydrologic Modeling and Assessment Part I: Model Development. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 1998, 34, 73–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dashora, Y.; Dillon, P.; Maheshwari, B.; Soni, P.; Mittal, H.K.; Dashora, R.; Singh, P.K.; Purohit, R.C.; Katara, P. Hydrologic and Cost Benefit Analysis at Local Scale of Streambed Recharge Structures in Rajasthan (India) and Their Value for Securing Irrigation Water Supplies. Hydrogeol. J. 2019, 27, 1889–1909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ashraf, M.; Kahlown, M.A.; Ashfaq, A. Impact of Small Dams on Agriculture and Groundwater Development: A Case Study from Pakistan. Agric. Water Manag. 2007, 92, 90–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mehdizadeh, S.S.; Ketabchi, H.; Ghoroqi, M.; Hasanzadeh, A.K. Experimental and Numerical Assessment of Saltwater Recession in Coastal Aquifers by Constructing Check Dams. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2020, 231, 103637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin, R. Clogging Issues Associated with Managed Aquifer Recharge Methods; IAH Comission and Managing Aquifer Recharge: Adelaide, Australia, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Gowrisankar, G.; Jagadeshan, G.; Elango, L. Managed Aquifer Recharge by a Check Dam to Improve the Quality of Fluoride-Rich Groundwater: A Case Study from Southern India. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2017, 189, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mudrakartha, S. Augmenting Groundwater Resources by Artificial Recharge Research Site at Aravalli Hills, Gujarat, India; AGRAR Inception Report; Vikram Sarabhai Centre for Development Interaction (VIKSAT): Ahmedabad, India, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Bhagavan, S.V.B.K.; Raghu, V. Utility of Check Dams in Dilution of Fluoride Concentration in Ground Water and the Resultant Analysis of Blood Serum and Urine of Villagers, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environ. Geochem. Health 2005, 27, 97–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ta’any, R.; Jiries, A.; Al Momani, M.; Samarah, M. Evaluation of Water Quality of Groundwater Recharge in Wadi Feifa, Southern Jordan Valley. Water Technol. 2009, 5, 88–93. [Google Scholar]
- Dong, S.; Liu, B.; Liu, H.; Wang, S.; Wang, L. Impacts of Groundwater Recharge from Rubber Dams on the Hydrogeological Environment in Luoyang Basin, China. Sci. World J. 2014, 2014, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baurne, G. “Trap-Dams”: Artificial Subsurface Storage of Water. Water Int. 1984, 9, 2–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ertsen, M.; Hut, R. Two Waterfalls Do Not Hear Each Other. Sand-Storage Dams, Science and Sustainable Development in Kenya. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2009, 34, 14–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hut, R.; Ertsen, M.; Joeman, N.; Vergeer, N.; Winsemius, H.; van de Giesen, N. Effects of Sand Storage Dams on Groundwater Levels with Examples from Kenya. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2008, 33, 56–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lasage, R.; Aerts, J.; Mutiso, G.C.M.; de Vries, A. Potential for Community Based Adaptation to Droughts: Sand Dams in Kitui, Kenya. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2008, 33, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisma, J.A.; Merwade, V.M. Investigating the Environmental Response to Water Harvesting Structures: A Field Study in Tanzania. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2020, 24, 1891–1906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lasage, R.; Aerts, J.C.J.H.; Verburg, P.H.; Sileshi, A.S. The Role of Small Scale Sand Dams in Securing Water Supply under Climate Change in Ethiopia. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang. 2013, 20, 317–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Viducich, J.M.G. Spillway Staging and Selective Sediment Deposition in Sand Storage Dams. Master’s Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvalis, OR, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Excellent Foundation. Northern Rangelands Sand Dam Programme 2015–2019. Available online: https://www.excellentdevelopment.com/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=056884fa-3f56-4b7c-bad5-dc9cc93764c9 (accessed on 3 November 2020).
- ASDF. Africa Sand Dam Foundation Impact Report 2017–2018. Available online: https://asdfafrica.org/resource-center/downloads?download=1:asdf-impact-and-theory-of-change-2018-08-08-final (accessed on 3 November 2020).
- Wang, Y.; Fu, B.; Chen, L.; Lü, Y.; Gao, Y. Check Dam in the Loess Plateau of China: Engineering for Environmental Services and Food Security. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 10298–10299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jin, Z.; Cui, B.; Song, Y.; Shi, W.; Wang, K.; Wang, Y.; Liang, J. How Many Check Dams Do We Need to Build on the Loess Plateau? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 8527–8528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Forzieri, G.; Gardenti, M.; Caparrini, F.; Castelli, F. A Methodology for the Pre-Selection of Suitable Sites for Surface and Underground Small Dams in Arid Areas: A Case Study in the Region of Kidal, Mali. Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A/B/C 2008, 33, 74–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gijsbertsen, C. A Study to Up-Scaling of the Principle and Sediment (Transport) Processes behind, Sand Storage Dams, Kitui District, Kenya. Master’s Thesis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Maddrell, S.; Neal, I. Building Sand Dams—A Practical Guide; Excellent Development: London, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Van Haveren, B.P. Dependable Water Supplies from Valley Alluvium in Arid Regions. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2004, 99, 259–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quinn, R.; Rushton, K.; Parker, A. An Examination of the Hydrological System of a Sand Dam during the Dry Season Leading to Water Balances. J. Hydrol. X 2019, 4, 100035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quinn, R.; Parker, A.; Rushton, K. Evaporation from Bare Soil: Lysimeter Experiments in Sand Dams Interpreted Using Conceptual and Numerical Models. J. Hydrol. 2018, 564, 909–915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, Z.; Yong, C.; Fan, J.; Shao, M.; Wang, S.; Jin, M. Precipitation Recharges the Shallow Groundwater of Check Dams in the Loessial Hilly and Gully Region of China. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 742, 140625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aerts, J.; Lasage, R.; Beets, W.; de Moel, H.; Mutiso, G.; Mutiso, S.; de Vries, A. Robustness of Sand Storage Dams under Climate Change. Vadose Zo. J. 2007, 6, 572–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rockström, J. Water Resources Management in Smallholder Farms in Eastern and Southern Africa: An Overview. Phys. Chem. Earth Part B: Hydrol. Ocean. Atmos. 2000, 25, 275–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Haveren, B.P.; Jackson, W.L.; Lusby, G.C. Sediment Deposition behind Sheep Creek Barrier Dam, Southern Utah. J. Hydrol. 1987, 26, 185–196. [Google Scholar]
- De Trincheria, J.; Leal, W.F.; Otterpohl, R. Towards a Universal Optimization of the Performance of Sand Storage Dams in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas by Systematically Minimizing Vulnerability to Siltation: A Case Study in Makueni, Kenya. Int. J. Sediment Res. 2018, 33, 221–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Trincheria, J.; Wibbing, J.; Leal, F.W.; Otterpohl, R. Practical Recommendations to Prevent, Restore and Rehabilitate Silted-up Sand Storage Dams in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas. In Proceedings of the 7th RWSN Forum “Water Everyone” Conference, Abidjan, Ivory Coast, 10–15 November 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Quinn, R.; Avis, O.; Decker, M.; Parker, A.; Cairncross, S. An Assessment of the Microbiological Water Quality of Sand Dams in Southeastern Kenya. Water 2018, 10, 708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moïse, N.; Kaluli, J.W.; Home, P.G. Evaluation of Sand-Dam Water Quality and Its Suitability for Domestic Use in Arid and Semi-Arid Environments: A Case Study of Kitui-West Sub-County, Kenya. Int. J. Water Resour. Environ. Eng. 2019, 11, 91–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ferreira, J.P.L.; Leitão, T.E. Demonstrating Managed Aquifer Recharge as a Solution for Climate Change Adaptation: Results from Gabardine Project and AsemwaterNet Coordination Action in the Algarve Region (Portugal). Acque Sotteranee—Ital. J. Groundw. 2014, 3, 15–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Leitao, T.E.; Ferreira, J.P.L.; Martins, T.; Henriques, M.J.; Mota, R.; Carvalho, T.; de Carvalho, J.M.; Agostinho, R.; Carvalho, R.; Sousa, R.; et al. MARSOL—Demonstrating Managed Aquifer Recharge as a Solution to Water Scarcity and Drought—Monitoring Results from the South Portugal MARSOL Demonstration Sites D4.3. 2016. Available online: http://www.marsol.eu/files/marsol-newsletter-issue05.pdf (accessed on 5 March 2020).
- Oliveira, M.M.; Ferreira, J.P.L.; Leitão, T.E.; Carvalho, T.; Costa, L.R.D.; Agostinho, R.; Monteiro, J.P. New Test of the GABARDINE Infiltration Basin for MAR in Rio Seco (Campina Da Faro Aquifer System, Algarve). In 10.° Seminário sobre Águas Subterrâneas; Associação Portuguesa dos Recursos Hídrico: Lisbon, Portugal, 2015; pp. 73–76. [Google Scholar]
- Leitão, T.E.; Ferreira, J.P.L.; Martins, T.; Oliveira, M.M.; Henriques, M.J.; Carvalho, T.; de Carvalho, J.M.; Agostinho, R.; Carvalho, R.; Sousa, R.; et al. MARSOL Demonstrating Managed Aquifer Recharge as a Solution to Water Scarcity and Drought: MAR to Improve the Groundwater Status in South Portugal D4.4. 2017. Available online: http://www.marsol.eu/files/marsol_d4-4_modelling-south-portugal-sites_20160726-compr.pdf (accessed on 3 November 2020).
- JBA Trust. Working with Natural Processes: A Catalogue of Nature-Based Flood Risk Management Projects in the UK. Available online: http://naturalprocesses.jbahosting.com/ (accessed on 22 May 2020).
- Barlow, J.; Moore, F.; Burgess-Gamble, L. Working with Natural Processes to Reduce Flood Risk—R&D Framework: Initiation Report; Report-SC13004/R1; Environmental Agency: Bristol, UK, 2014.
- Shuttleworth, E.L.; Evans, M.G.; Pilkington, M.; Spencer, T.; Walker, J.; Milledge, D.; Allott, T.E.H. Restoration of Blanket Peat Moorland Delays Stormflow from Hillslopes and Reduces Peak Discharge. J. Hydrol. X 2019, 2, 100006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UK-POST. Natural Mitigation of Flood Risk. 2020. Available online: http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/POST-PN-0623/POST-PN-0623.pdf (accessed on 3 November 2020).
- de Visscher, M.; Nyssen, J.; Pontzeele, J.; Billi, P.; Frankl, A. Spatio-Temporal Sedimentation Patterns in Beaver Ponds along the Chevral River, Ardennes, Belgium. Hydrol. Process. 2014, 28, 1602–1615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jones, C.G.; Lawton, J.H.; Shachak, M. Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers. Oikos 1994, 69, 373–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Westbrook, C.J.; Cooper, D.J.; Butler, D.R. Beaver Hydrology and Geomorphology. In Treatise Geomorphology; Academic Press: Waltham, MA, USA, 2013; Volume 3, pp. 293–306. [Google Scholar]
- Neumayer, M.; Teschemacher, S.; Schloemer, S.; Zahner, V. Hydraulic Modeling of Beaver Dams and Evaluation of Their Impacts on Flood Events. Water 2020, 12, 300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Smith, A.; Tetzlaff, D.; Gelbrecht, J.; Kleine, L.; Soulsby, C. Riparian Wetland Rehabilitation and Beaver Re-Colonization Impacts on Hydrological Processes and Water Quality in a Lowland Agricultural Catchment. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 699, 134302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Westbrook, C.J.; Cooper, D.J.; Baker, B.W. Beaver Dams and Overbank Floods Influence Groundwater—Surface Water Interactions of a Rocky Mountain Riparian Area. Water Resour. Res. 2006, 42, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sauquet, E.; van Meerveld, I.; Gallart, F.; Sefton, C.; Parry, S.; Gauster, T.; Laaha, G.; Alves, M.H.; Arnaud, P.; Banasik, K.; et al. Catalogue of European Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams; Technical Report SMIRES COST Action CA15113. Science and Management of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams (SMIRES), 2020. Available online: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02914572/file/Sauquet_et_al_2020Catalogue_SMIRES.pdf (accessed on 5 March 2020). [CrossRef]
- Escalante, E.F.; Casas, J.D.H.; Medeiros, A.M.V.; Sauto, J.S.S. Regulations and Guidelines on Water Quality Requirements for Managed Aquifer Recharge. International Comparison. Acque Sotteranee—Ital. J. Groundw. 2020, 9, 7–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EU. Directive 2006/118/EC on the Protection of Groundwater against Pollution and Deterioration. Off. J. Eur. Union 2006, 372, 19–31. [Google Scholar]
Statistic | Annual Average Rainfall (mm) | Catchment Area (km2) | Dam Capacity (m3) | Dam Height (m) | Volume Recharged (m3/year) | Annual Runoff to Check Dam (m3) | Annual Runoff (m3/km2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | 115 | 0.07 | 308 | 1.5 | 960 | 7018 | 5076 |
25th Percentile | 359 | 0.88 | 1543 | 3.0 | 10,250 | 20,000 | 23,864 |
Median | 387 | 1.53 | 7000 | 3.5 | 20,200 | 39,000 | 24,615 |
75th Percentile | 673 | 7.45 | 76,250 | 5.0 | 80,375 | 390,000 | 59,656 |
Maximum | 1860 | 1770 | 11,400,000 | 11.0 | 19,340,000 | 13,600,000 | 2,951,278 |
Mean | 481 | 59.20 | 603,552 | 4.5 | 737,337 | 853,625 | 117,770 |
Count | 62 | 78 | 86 | 25 | 79 | 53 | 47 |
Statistic | Recharge Efficiency | Runoff Collection Efficiency |
---|---|---|
Minimum | 0.17 | 0.0007 |
25th Percentile | 1.27 | 0.0289 |
Median | 2.82 | 0.0556 |
75th Percentile | 8.75 | 0.4000 |
Maximum | 124.88 | 3.0732 |
Mean | 6.69 | 0.3468 |
Count | 79 | 53 |
Parameter | Value (Units) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Annual average rainfall | 150–1000 mm/year | [67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75] |
Catchment area (km2) | 0.15 to 366 km2 | [73] |
Catchment slope | >2 degrees | [79] |
Riverbed slope | 0.2–5% (up to 16% in extreme cases) 0.01 to 3% | [73,79] |
Bed rock depth | <3 m/at surface | [80] |
Valley profile | Narrow, 10–15 m | [68] |
Dam height | Generally, 2–6 m | [69,85] |
Dam width | 10–1000 m typically, up to 30 m | [69,85] |
Sand storage volume | 20 to 140,000 m3 | Nissen-Peterson in [86] |
Dam materials | Stone masonry or concrete | [68,85] |
Construction period | 3–6 months | [80] |
Time to fill | Ideally 1–3 years typically, within a year | [73,80] |
Fill material | Fine—Coarse Sand | [69,71] |
Specific yield/Effective porosity | 0.1–0.3 | [69,81,82] |
Water supplied | 780–8000 m3 | [70,71,72] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Standen, K.; Costa, L.R.D.; Monteiro, J.-P. In-Channel Managed Aquifer Recharge: A Review of Current Development Worldwide and Future Potential in Europe. Water 2020, 12, 3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113099
Standen K, Costa LRD, Monteiro J-P. In-Channel Managed Aquifer Recharge: A Review of Current Development Worldwide and Future Potential in Europe. Water. 2020; 12(11):3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113099
Chicago/Turabian StyleStanden, Kathleen, Luís R. D. Costa, and José-Paulo Monteiro. 2020. "In-Channel Managed Aquifer Recharge: A Review of Current Development Worldwide and Future Potential in Europe" Water 12, no. 11: 3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113099
APA StyleStanden, K., Costa, L. R. D., & Monteiro, J. -P. (2020). In-Channel Managed Aquifer Recharge: A Review of Current Development Worldwide and Future Potential in Europe. Water, 12(11), 3099. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12113099