An Assessment of the Microbiological Water Quality of Sand Dams in Southeastern Kenya
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Field Area
- Dams built by the Africa Sand Dam Federation (ASDF) to facilitate access.
- Water table within three metres of the dam surface to ensure samples could be gathered.
- Shallow wells or scoop holes have to be used for domestic purposes.
- Dam surface not obscured by water to enable excavation when necessary.
2.2. Water Quality Indicators
2.3. Descriptions of Water Sources
2.4. Data Collection
- For a test hole, 20 L was abstracted before taking water samples.
- For a scoop hole, 20 L was abstracted or until the water became clear.
- For a covered well, the pump nozzle would be flamed with a lighter and water pumped for thirty seconds before sampling
- For covered wells, water was pumped for thirty seconds before taking water samples.
- In scoop holes, water was first scooped with a sterile cup until the water appeared clear.
2.5. Statistical Analysis Techniques
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of Sources
3.2. Comparison between Variables
3.3. Correlation between TTC and Sanitary Score
4. Discussion
4.1. Source Comparison
4.2. Sanitary Survey
4.3. Potential Risk Factors
4.4. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Water Quality Indicator | KEBS [28] | WHO [27] |
---|---|---|
TTC (TTC/100 mL) | 0 | 0 |
Turbidity (NTU) | <5 | <1 |
Conductivity (µS) | N/A | 1500 |
pH | 6.5–8.5 | 6.5–8.5 |
Source | Number of Sources Visited | % with TTC = 0 | Percentage with Conductivity <1500 µS/cm | Median Conductivity (µS/cm) | Median TTC | Median Turbidity (NTU) | Median pH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Covered Wells | 47 | 70 (N = 33) | 74 (N = 35) | 824 (SD = 421) | 0 (SD = 0) | 5–10 (SD = 0–5) | 7.3 (SD = 0.3) |
Scoop Holes | 36 | 11 (N = 4) | 77 (N = 28) | 912 (SD = 515) | 159 (SD = 148) | 20–30 (SD = 5–10) | 7.4 (SD = 0.23) |
Test Holes | 29 | 83 (N = 24) | N/A | N/A | 0 (SD = 0) | 20–30 (SD = 5–10) | 7.3 (SD = 0.21) |
Question | Percentage of “yes” Answers (N = 39) | Frequency of “yes” Answers (N = 39) | p-Value for Association between Risk Factors Identified and Presence of TTC |
---|---|---|---|
Is there a latrine within 10 m of the well? | 0 | 0 | n/a |
Is there a latrine on higher ground than the well within 100 m of the well? | 10 | 4 | 0.56 |
Is the fencing around the well inadequate to keep animals away? | 100 | 39 | n/a |
Is the hand-pump loose at point of attachment to the well head? | 100 | 39 | n/a |
Is the drainage channel around the well cracked, dirty, or broken? | 62 | 24 | 0.27 |
Is the concrete apron less than one meter wide all around the well? | 54 | 21 | 1 |
Is there poor drainage, allowing stagnant water within two meters of the well? | 100 | 39 | n/a |
Is the concrete apron around the well cracked? | 36 | 14 | 0.70 |
Are the walls of the well inadequately sealed? | 15 | 6 | 0.31 |
Is there any other source of contamination within 10 m of the well? | 100 | 39 | n/a |
Is there any farming activity within 15 m of the well? | 41 | 16 | 0.44 |
Question | Percentage of “yes” Answers (N = 11) | Frequency of “yes” Answers (N = 11) | p-Value for Association between Risk Factors Identified and Presence of TTC |
---|---|---|---|
Is there a latrine within 10 m of the well? | 0 | 0 | n/a |
Is there a latrine on higher ground than the well within 100 m of the well? | 18 | 2 | 0.48 |
Is there any other source of contamination within 10 m of the well? | 100 | 11 | n/a |
Is the fencing around the well inadequate to keep animals away? | 100 | 11 | n/a |
Is the riverbed used as a road for cattle? | 100 | 11 | n/a |
Is there a scoop hole for animal consumption upstream to the scoop hole for human consumption? | 64 | 8 | 0.49 |
Has it rained within five days? | 0 | 0 | n/a |
Do users have direct contact with water during the collection? | 100 | 11 | n/a |
Is the scoop hole without any protection against runoff? | 100 | 11 | n/a |
Is there any tree around the scoop hole which could lead to contamination? | 46 | 5 | 0.52 |
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Quinn, R.; Avis, O.; Decker, M.; Parker, A.; Cairncross, S. An Assessment of the Microbiological Water Quality of Sand Dams in Southeastern Kenya. Water 2018, 10, 708. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060708
Quinn R, Avis O, Decker M, Parker A, Cairncross S. An Assessment of the Microbiological Water Quality of Sand Dams in Southeastern Kenya. Water. 2018; 10(6):708. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060708
Chicago/Turabian StyleQuinn, Ruth, Orlando Avis, Manon Decker, Alison Parker, and Sandy Cairncross. 2018. "An Assessment of the Microbiological Water Quality of Sand Dams in Southeastern Kenya" Water 10, no. 6: 708. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060708