FDOM Conversion in Karst Watersheds Expressed by Three-Dimensional Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Field Site
2.2. Sample Collection
2.3. Optical Measurement and Analysis
2.4. The PARAFAC Model
3. Results
3.1. Component Extraction by PARAFAC
3.2. Spatial Distribution of FDOM Fluorescent Components
4. Discussion
4.1. DOM Source Tracing
4.2. Differentiation of FDOM Fluorescence Signal
4.3. DOM Fluorescent Component Conversion in the Surface and Ground Water
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample | Sampling Point | Lithology | Water Type * | Sample Site | pH | EC ** (μS/cm) | T (°C) | DO (mg/L) | TDS (mg/L) | Turbidity (NTU) | NO3– (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S01 | Hongling I | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Spring | 7.45 | 566 | 15.3 | 7.15 | 245 | 0.72 | 18.32 |
S02 | Hongling II | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Spring | 8.30 | 543 | 14.2 | 9.27 | 272 | 1.72 | 37.38 |
S03 | Xiying | Residual sandy clay | SW | Surface river | 8.17 | 422 | 20.0 | 8.97 | 191 | 0.10 | 1.20 |
S04 | Dashuijing | Limestone and dolomitic limestone | KW | Well 200 m in depth | 7.49 | 697 | 14.6 | 5.75 | 302 | 0.66 | 16.52 |
S05 | Jiuqu | Residual sandy clay | SW | Surface river | 7.90 | 653 | 17.2 | 8.60 | 280 | 0.66 | 20.96 |
S06 | Dafo | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Spring | 7.35 | 693 | 15.0 | 7.73 | 290 | 1.22 | 30.75 |
S07 | Shiyao | Gneiss | MW | Well 10 m in depth | 7.51 | 751 | 17.3 | 6.30 | 324 | 2.49 | 37.06 |
S08 | Liubu | Residual sandy clay | SW | Surface river | 8.09 | 506 | 15.1 | 10.70 | 221 | 0.93 | 16.68 |
S09 | Beigao’er | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Spring | 7.50 | 755 | 15.5 | 8.36 | 334 | 2.19 | 50.47 |
S10 | Menya | Residual sandy clay | SW | Surface river | 8.08 | 513 | 19.7 | 14.63 | 250 | 1.70 | 15.86 |
S11 | Wohushan I | Residual sandy clay | SW | Reservoir | 8.68 | 1035 | 18.1 | 11.77 | 455 | 5.95 | 12.71 |
S12 | Wohushan II | Surface water | SW | Reservoir | 8.52 | 1044 | 17.4 | 10.27 | 450 | 5.69 | 11.96 |
S13 | Wohushan III | Residual sandy clay | SW | Reservoir | 8.29 | 1051 | 15.9 | 8.77 | 455 | 3.87 | 11.43 |
S14 | Cuijia I | Residual sandy clay | LW | Well 6 m in depth | 7.27 | 1110 | 15.4 | 4.63 | 477 | 1.30 | 20.72 |
S15 | Cuijia II | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Spring | 7.90 | 557 | 14.4 | 9.90 | 241 | 0.46 | 18.66 |
S16 | Zhaike | Piedmont alluvial plain | SW | Surface river | 8.58 | 971 | 19.4 | 12.16 | 418 | 3.10 | 7.69 |
S17 | Zhai’ertou I | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Well 262 m in depth | 7.64 | 671 | 17.2 | 8.60 | 288 | 1.48 | 32.00 |
S18 | Zhai’ertou II | Piedmont alluvial plain | SW | Surface river | 8.20 | 992 | 16.3 | 10.20 | 256 | 2.56 | 7.37 |
S19 | Eastern Kema | Piedmont alluvial plain | LW | Well 26 m in depth | 7.81 | 1280 | 18.3 | 8.95 | 550 | 0.82 | 9.08 |
S20 | Xiangjiazhuang | Limestone, marl, and limestone intercalated with little shale | KW | Well 329 m in depth | 7.40 | 801 | 15.2 | 7.01 | 347 | 0.88 | 72.44 |
S21 | Western Kema | Piedmont alluvial plain | SW | Surface river | 9.34 | 1647 | 19.1 | 10.80 | 701 | 4.80 | 1.08 |
S22 | Cuimazhuang | Piedmont alluvial plain | SW | Surface river | 9.06 | 1635 | 19.2 | 10.63 | 696 | 6.57 | 4.17 |
Components | Type | Ex/Em | |
---|---|---|---|
This Study | Reference | ||
C1 | Tyrosine of protein-like | 300(245)/345 | 275/310 [44] 275(220)/315 [45] 270–290/300–320 [46,47] |
C2 | Tryptophan of protein-like | <225(275)/340 | 275/340 [42,44,48] 270–290/300–350 [46,47] |
C3 | UV-fulvic acid (FA-like) | 235/414 | 240–270/370–440 [47] 235–255/410–450 [46] 235–255/410–450 [49] 230/430 [42] 260/380–460 [42] |
Water Type | Sampling Point | Absolute Value (a.u.) | Relative Value (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DOM Component | C1 | C2 | C3 | C1 | C2 | C3 | |
Ex (nm) | 300(245) | <225(275) | 235 | 300(245) | <225(275) | 235 | |
Em (nm) | 345 | 340 | 414 | 345 | 340 | 414 | |
KW | S01 | 0.00 | 107 | 1.79 | 0.00 | 98.4 | 1.64 |
S02 | 9.20 | 48.4 | 3.19 | 15.1 | 79.6 | 5.24 | |
S04 | 117 | 40.3 | 2.07 | 73.4 | 25.3 | 1.30 | |
S06 | 72.2 | 75.2 | 1.12 | 48.6 | 50.6 | 0.75 | |
S09 | 128 | 105 | 4.32 | 53.9 | 44.3 | 1.82 | |
S15 | 0.00 | 94.8 | 3.82 | 0.00 | 96.1 | 3.87 | |
S17 | 3.26 | 61.8 | 3.99 | 4.72 | 89.5 | 5.77 | |
S20 | 9.49 | 34.6 | 3.68 | 19.9 | 72.4 | 7.71 | |
Avg. | 42.4 | 71.0 | 2.99 | 27.0 | 69.5 | 3.51 | |
SW | S03 | 0.00 | 129 | 9.58 | 0.00 | 93.1 | 6.91 |
S05 | 8.62 | 53.0 | 4.07 | 13.1 | 80.7 | 6.20 | |
S08 | 2.33 | 60.0 | 4.50 | 3.50 | 89.8 | 6.75 | |
S10 | 1.79 | 101 | 4.19 | 1.67 | 94.4 | 3.91 | |
S11 | 2.39 | 93 | 11.7 | 2.23 | 86.9 | 10.92 | |
S13 | 6.10 | 133 | 12.2 | 4.03 | 87.9 | 8.08 | |
S16 | 1.39 | 123 | 13.5 | 1.00 | 89.2 | 9.79 | |
S18 | 0.86 | 123 | 13.3 | 0.63 | 89.7 | 9.65 | |
S21 | 11.4 | 124 | 19.7 | 7.36 | 79.9 | 12.7 | |
S22 | 10.6 | 146 | 20.7 | 5.95 | 82.4 | 11.7 | |
Avg. | 4.54 | 107 | 11.4 | 3.95 | 87.4 | 8.66 | |
MW | S07 | 5.14 | 54.6 | 7.14 | 7.68 | 81.7 | 10.7 |
LW | S14 | 3.81 | 108 | 4.99 | 3.27 | 92.4 | 4.28 |
S19 | 6.45 | 92 | 7.14 | 6.11 | 87.1 | 6.76 | |
Avg. | 5.13 | 100 | 6.06 | 4.69 | 89.8 | 5.52 |
Water Type | Sampling Point | Ex (370 nm) | FI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Em (450 nm) | Em (500 nm) | |||
KW | S01 | 54.1 | 29.2 | 1.85 |
S02 | 102 | 47.6 | 2.15 | |
S04 | 120 | 60.1 | 1.97 | |
S06 | 72.7 | 36.2 | 2.01 | |
S09 | 108 | 56.9 | 1.89 | |
S15 | 113 | 61.4 | 1.84 | |
S17 | 115 | 61.6 | 1.86 | |
S20 | 122 | 62.2 | 1.97 | |
Avg. | 101 ± 22.9 | 52.0 ± 12.1 | 1.94 ± 0.1 | |
SW | S03 | 245 | 152 | 1.61 |
S05 | 125 | 75.1 | 1.66 | |
S08 | 166 | 96.4 | 1.72 | |
S10 | 122 | 65.7 | 1.85 | |
S11 | 261 | 152 | 1.72 | |
S13 | 274 | 164 | 1.67 | |
S16 | 350 | 204 | 1.72 | |
S18 | 346 | 198 | 1.75 | |
S21 | 472 | 286 | 1.65 | |
S22 | 453 | 271 | 1.67 | |
Avg. | 281 ± 118.2 | 166 ± 71.7 | 1.70 ± 0.1 | |
MW | S07 | 197 | 106 | 1.86 |
LW | S14 | 140 | 70.2 | 1.99 |
S19 | 167 | 88.5 | 1.88 | |
Avg. | 153 ± 13.5 | 79.3 ± 9.2 | 1.94 ± 0.1 |
pH | EC | T | DO | TDS | Turbidity | NO3− | C1 *** | C2 *** | C3 *** | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 1 | |||||||||
EC | 0.568 ** | 1 | ||||||||
T | 0.581 ** | 0.380 | 1 | |||||||
DO | 0.694 ** | 0.097 | 0.569 ** | 1 | ||||||
TDS | 0.564 ** | 0.964 ** | 0.399 | 0.096 | 1 | |||||
Turbidity | 0.746 ** | 0.735 ** | 0.420 | 0.409 | 0.728 ** | 1 | ||||
NO3− | −0.602 ** | −0.353 | −0.527 * | −0.417 | −0.301 | −0.311 | 1 | |||
C1 | −0.406 | −0.142 | −0.434 * | −0.416 | −0.114 | −0.198 | 0.388 | 1 | ||
C2 | 0.302 | 0.035 | 0.363 | 0.383 | 0.014 | 0.082 | −0.362 | −0.987 ** | 1 | |
C3 | 0.738 ** | 0.626 ** | 0.579 ** | 0.372 | 0.574 ** | 0.700 ** | −0.321 | −0.551 ** | 0.410 | 1 |
Unit | Absolute Value (a.u.) | Relative Value (%) | EC (μS/cm) | DO (mg/L) | TDS (mg/L) | Turbidity (NTU) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C1 | C2 | C3 | Sum | C1 | C2 | C3 | |||||
KW in upstream | 65.30 | 75.30 | 2.50 | 143.00 | 38.20 | 59.70 | 2.15 | 651 | 7.65 | 289 | 0.85 |
MW in upstream | 5.14 | 54.60 | 7.14 | 67.00 | 7.68 | 81.70 | 10.67 | 751 | 6.30 | 324 | 2.49 |
SW in upstream | 3.19 | 85.90 | 5.59 | 95.00 | 4.58 | 89.50 | 5.94 | 524 | 10.70 | 236 | 1.30 |
RW * | 4.25 | 113.00 | 12.00 | 129.00 | 3.13 | 87.40 | 9.50 | 1043 | 10.30 | 455 | 4.91 |
SW in middle and downstream | 6.05 | 129.00 | 16.80 | 152.00 | 3.74 | 85.30 | 10.96 | 1311 | 11.00 | 518 | 4.26 |
LW in middle and downstream | 5.13 | 100.00 | 6.07 | 111.00 | 4.69 | 89.80 | 5.52 | 1195 | 6.79 | 514 | 1.06 |
KW in middle and downstream | 4.25 | 64.00 | 3.83 | 72.00 | 8.20 | 86.00 | 5.78 | 676 | 8.50 | 292 | 0.94 |
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Liu, W.; Zhang, L.; Liu, P.; Qin, X.; Shan, X.; Yao, X. FDOM Conversion in Karst Watersheds Expressed by Three-Dimensional Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Water 2018, 10, 1427. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101427
Liu W, Zhang L, Liu P, Qin X, Shan X, Yao X. FDOM Conversion in Karst Watersheds Expressed by Three-Dimensional Fluorescence Spectroscopy. Water. 2018; 10(10):1427. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101427
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Wen, Liankai Zhang, Pengyu Liu, Xiaoqun Qin, Xiaojing Shan, and Xin Yao. 2018. "FDOM Conversion in Karst Watersheds Expressed by Three-Dimensional Fluorescence Spectroscopy" Water 10, no. 10: 1427. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101427