Climate Change and Health: Insight into a Healthy, Sustainable and Resilient Future

Several research studies in the literature have alerted us to the impacts of climate variability and change, extreme weather and climate events on people’s health [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12], resulting consequent suffering [13,14] and death [15,16,17,18,19,20].

The Special Issue entitled “Climate Change and Health: Insight into a Healthy, Sustainable and Resilient Future” is a collection of eight manuscripts from scholars and practitioners with insights into protecting public health from climate change, extreme weather and climate-related hazards. This Editorial will summarize the eight peer-reviewed papers that were published as part of this Special Issue.

The study developed by Rodrigues [21] quantified the impact of climate change on temperature-related, cause-specific mortality while considering adaptations and future demographic changes in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, Portugal. To achieve this objective, a distributed lag non-linear model was applied to quantify the burden of temperature-related mortality during the present (for reference, 1986–2005) scenario and a future scenario (2046–2065). The findings show that there was an increase of 0.33% in temperature-related excess mortality (95% CI: 0.02 to 0.59) and significantly lower all-cause deaths in the future. Moderate cold exposure under a threshold of 1 °C and a high population scenario reduced future temperature-related deaths and diabetes mellitus (−1.32, 95% CI: −2.65 to 0.23). Similarly, moderate heat exposure under a threshold of 4 °C and a high population scenario had the highest increase in net changes (6.75, 95% CI: −5.06 to 15.32). In a changing climate, this study’s findings and methodology have important implications for monitoring and developing targeted prevention plans for non-communicable diseases.

In their research, Çulpan et al. [22] evaluated excess deaths during heat waves between the summer months of 2004 and 2017 in Istanbul and determined a definition of heat waves that can be used in the development of an early warning system, a part of prospective urban heat-health action plans. The total duration of these heat waves was 334 days. In 67% of the heat waves, the death rate was significantly higher than during the reference period. Twenty heat waves that lasted a total of 257 days caused an increased risk of mortality ranging between 7% and 31% and corresponded to a total of 4281 deaths. It was also found that the increase in mortality risk was higher in heat waves where high Excess Heat Factor (EHF) values were long lasting or increased rapidly. In conclusion, the results suggest that EHF is an indicator that can be used in establishing an early warning system in Istanbul.

The study of Ouyang et al. [23] analyzed the global scientific output of research in the field of climate change and health between 1990 and 2020, based on the Web of Science Core Collection database. The results showed that the research output in the field of climate change and health has increased dramatically in the past 30 years, mainly dominated by researchers in developed countries. The percentage of research receiving funding was extremely low before 2008, with a sharp increase in the following few years until reaching a plateau of around 75%. Research conducted only by developing countries received the lowest percentage of funding.

Zheng et al. [24] investigated the relationship between durations of different daily mean air-temperature categories and mortality in China and forecast future mortality changes in China for 2020–2050 under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. The results suggest that under the RCP 4.5 scenario, the range of mortality will be 3.518% to 7.356% during the 2020–2050 period, and the mortality rate will increase in 86 regions. Under the RCP 8.5 scenario, the range of mortality will be 3.524% to 7.417% during the 2020–2050 period, and the distribution pattern is almost identical to that of the RCP 4.5 scenario.

Xue et al. [25], conducted a comprehensive assessment of drought status and trends based on the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) in Northeast China (NEC) from the period of 1990 until 2018. The authors found that NEC has exhibited a general dry tendency over the past three decades. The percentage of annual drought-affected areas increased by 0.7%, and 86.3% of the area exhibited a drying trend. Future dry–wet trends are inconsistent with the current situation. The areas with wetting and drying trends would cover 86.3% and 16.7% of NEC, respectively. From the timeline, the drying trend peaked in 2001, and then it exhibited a mitigation tendency before drying again after 2013. The implementation of ecological restoration projects is primarily responsible for drought mitigation.

The article of Arnold et al. [26] used a case-crossover analysis to describe the historical relationship between heat and non-traumatic mortality in Washington’s ten climate divisions. A fixed-effects meta-analysis was used to simplify the exposure–response curves to a single, state-wide value, and the OR of non-traumatic mortality at the 99th percentile of humidex compared to the 50th percentile. Subgroup analyses were also conducted to investigate effect modification by age, sex, race/ethnicity, and cause of death. Finally, the historical exposure–response curves were combined with climate projections to investigate the impact of climate change on an existing public health issue. This study provides evidence that risk increases with age and for diabetic, circulatory, cardiovascular, ischemic, cerebrovascular, and respiratory deaths. The 95% confidence intervals of projected heat-attributable mortality did not overlap with zero in three climate divisions (E Olympic Cascade Foothills, NE Olympic San Juan, and Puget Sound Lowlands). In these three divisions, the average percent increase in heat-attributable mortality across both warming scenarios is 35%, 35%, and 603% in 2030, 2050, and 2080, respectively.

Timlin et al. [27] investigated which perceived environmental and adaptation factors relate to self-rated well-being, quality of life, satisfaction with life, self-rated health, and feeling of empowerment to face the changes relating to permafrost thaw. Based on a self-assessment in this case study, participants from this permafrost community have good holistic well-being and are satisfied with their life. They feel they have the power to face the changes relating to permafrost thaw. Still, central challenges and problems relating to permafrost thaw, e.g., in nature, infrastructure, traditional lifeways, and health and safety, are recognized—and they influence the life and mental well-being of people. Adaptation is important and necessary for study participants; there are no other options in order to continue with life. However, more adaptation actions are needed, and they should be supported and carried out in co-operation with decision-makers from different levels.

The study of Crane et al. [28] aimed to summarize the relevant evidence examining the harm climate change may have on mental health, suggest potential mechanisms, and discuss implications. The authors recommend increased efforts in the creation and implementation of policies that combat the effects of climate changes, including mitigation of greenhouse gases, less reliance on fossil fuels, development of alternative energy sources, prevention of the loss of biodiversity, and reduction in our individual carbon footprints.

We are grateful to all authors, scientists, and reviewers who contributed to the body of knowledge which helped to improve the overall merit of this Special Issue, as well the journal Atmosphere for offering the Special Issue, and to the staff of the journal team for their excellent cooperation.