Differences in the Bacteriome of Smokeless Tobacco Products with Different Oral Carcinogenicity: Compositional and Predicted Functional Analysis
1
Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, 45142 Jazan, Saudi Arabia
2
Kornberg School of Dentistry, Temple University, 3223 N Board Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
3
Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery Department, Faculty of Medicine, Jazan University, 45142 Jazan, Saudi Arabia
4
Department of Microbiology, Forsyth Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Academic Editor: Thierry Wirth
Genes 2017, 8(4), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes8040106
Received: 22 December 2016 / Revised: 17 March 2017 / Accepted: 17 March 2017 / Published: 23 March 2017
(This article belongs to the Section Microbial Genetics and Genomics)
Smokeless tobacco (ST) products vary significantly in their oral carcinogenicity. Much is known about the differences in the chemical, but not the bacterial, constituents of these products. In this study, we explored the composition and function of the bacteriome in ST products from four countries using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and 16S rRNA-based next generation sequencing. The bacterial load (16S rRNA copies/gram) was lowest in Swedish snus (3.4 × 106) and highest in Yemeni shammah (6.6 × 1011). A total of 491 species-level taxa, many of which are potentially novel, belonging to 178 genera and 11 phyla were identified. Species richness and diversity were highest for Swedish snus and lowest for Yemeni shammah. Bacillus, Paenibacillus, and Oceanobacillus spp. were the most abundant in American snuff; species of Pseudomonas, Massilia, Propionibacterium, Puniceispirillum, and Gloeothece predominated in Swedish snus. In Sudanese toombak, Facklamia, Desemzia, Atopostipes, and Lysinibacillus spp. accounted for the majority of the bacteriome. Yemeni shammah exclusively contained Bacillus spp. Functional prediction by phylogenetic investigation of communities by reconstruction of unobserved states (PICRUSt) showed that genes encoding cadmium/zinc and nickel transport systems were enriched in the presumptively “high carcinogenicity” products. The bacteriome of ST products thus differed qualitatively, quantitatively, and functionally. The relevance of these differences, particularly with respect to nickel and cadmium, to oral carcinogenesis warrants further investigation.
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Keywords:
bacteria; bacteriome; carcinoma; microbiome; mouth; smokeless; snuff; tobacco
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MDPI and ACS Style
Al-hebshi, N.N.; Alharbi, F.A.; Mahri, M.; Chen, T. Differences in the Bacteriome of Smokeless Tobacco Products with Different Oral Carcinogenicity: Compositional and Predicted Functional Analysis. Genes 2017, 8, 106.
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