Next Article in Journal
A Formative Study of the Implementation of Whole Genome Sequencing in Northern Ireland
Next Article in Special Issue
Genome-Wide Identification of NRT Gene Family and Expression Analysis of Nitrate Transporters in Response to Salt Stress in Poncirus trifoliata
Previous Article in Journal
Gene Conversion Explains Elevated Diversity in the Immunity Modulating APL1 Gene of the Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus
Previous Article in Special Issue
Genome-Wide Analysis of the WRKY Gene Family in Malus domestica and the Role of MdWRKY70L in Response to Drought and Salt Stresses
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Genes
Volume 13
Issue 7
10.3390/genes13071103
genes-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Genome-Wide Analysis of the GDSL Genes in Pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch): Phylogeny, Structure, Promoter Cis-Elements, Co-Expression Networks, and Response to Salt Stresses

by
Yun Jiao
1,
Jianhong Zhang
1,2,* and
Cunde Pan
2
1
Institute of Forestry, Ningbo Academy of Agricultural Science, Ningbo 315040, China
2
College of Forestry and Horticulture, Xinjiang Agricultural University, No.311 Nongda East Road, Urumqi 830052, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Genes 2022, 13(7), 1103; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13071103
Submission received: 13 May 2022 / Revised: 13 June 2022 / Accepted: 17 June 2022 / Published: 21 June 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers in Horticultural Genetics and Breeding)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Gly-Asp-Ser-Leu (GDSL)-lipase family is a large subfamily of lipolytic enzymes that plays an important role in plant growth and defense against environmental stress. However, little is known about their function in pecans (Carya illinoensis K. Koch). In this study, 87 CilGDSLs were identified and divided into 2 groups and 12 subgroups using phylogenetic analysis; members of the same sub-branch had conserved gene structure and motif composition. The majority of the genes had four introns and were composed of an α-helix and a β-strand. Subcellular localization analysis revealed that these genes were localized in the extracellular matrix, chloroplasts, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole, and endoplasmic reticulum, and were validated by transient expression in tobacco mesophyll cells. Furthermore, the analysis of the promoter cis-elements for the CilGDSLs revealed the presence of plant anaerobic induction regulatory, abscisic acid response, light response elements, jasmonic acid (JA) response elements, etc. The qRT-PCR analysis results in “Pawnee” with salt treatment showed that the CilGDSL42.93 (leaf) and CilGDSL39.88 (root) were highly expressed in different tissues. After salt stress treatment, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) analysis revealed the presence of a total of ten GDSL proteins. Moreover, the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) showed that one set of co-expressed genes (module), primarily CilGDSL41.11, CilGDSL39.49, CilGDSL34.85, and CilGDSL41.01, was significantly associated with salt stress in leaf. In short, some of them were shown to be involved in plant defense against salt stress in this study.

1. Introduction

The Gly-Asp-Ser-Leu (GDSL)-lipase family consists of hydrolytic enzymes widely distributed throughout prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Some plant GDSL lipase genes have been successfully identified in various species, including 105 members in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) [1], 113 in rice (Oryza sativa) [2], 126 in white poplar (Populus trichocarpa), 57 in Physcomitrella (Physcomitrella patens), and others [3]. Gene structure (exon/intron) analysis in Arabidopsis shows that the GDSL lipase genes contain four introns (73 genes), three introns (11 genes), and two introns (12 genes) [4]. Alternatively, the intron numbers range from 0 to 26 in the Rosaceae GDSL esterase/lipase protein (GELP) genes [5]. Subcellular localization analysis using signal peptides identified 99 Arabidopsis GDSL lipase genes in the extracellular parts and organelles [6]. These different locations in the cell substructures mean that GDSLs may have a variety of biological functions. The structure of the rice GDSL esterase/lipase protein (OsGELP) is composed of six α-helices and six β-strands, but each member has distinct irregular loops and inserted sequences [7]. However, the crystal structure of plant lipases has not been reported to date.
GDSL lipases play the important roles in plant growth and development, resistance, morphogenesis, and pathogen defense [3,8,9]. For example, rapeseed (Brassica napus) GDSL lipase gene (BnaLIP1) was expressed in the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit pods, flower buds, and other tissues [2]. Similarly, the co-expression and gene knockout analyses in Arabidopsis and B. napus demonstrate that AtEXL6 and BnEXL6 play a role in pollen growth and development [10]. Alternatively, plant hormone induction and regulation are required when certain GDSL lipases function in response to stress. Naranjo et al. found that the Arabidopsis lipase gene (AtLTL1) encoding the GDSL-motif under salt induction can enhance salt tolerance and also regulate pathogen resistance via salicylic acid activation [11]. Hence, salt stress can activate the GDSL-lipase gene, which plays a vital part in the plant’s defensive mechanism.
Pecan is one of the world’s most well-known dried fruit plants, and the fruits have high nutritional value [12,13]. The unsaturated fatty acid contents in the pecan kernel are higher than in olives, which is four-fold compared to walnuts (Juglans regia). Moreover, plants are known to be susceptible to a variety of abiotic factors that cause them to lose quality and yield and disrupt several biochemical and metabolic processes [14,15,16]. In the previous study, we enhanced the cultivation of pecans in coastal salt-affected soil near the beach, and the impact on pecan kernel quality was thoroughly studied. The findings revealed that when the concentration of NaCl in the fruit increased under salt stress, the fat content in the fruit gradually decreased, and the fatty acid composition and relative content also varied [17]. Furthermore, earlier research has demonstrated that GDSL lipases are involved in the synthesis and decomposition of fatty acids in plant seeds. It is a key enzyme in the metabolism of fatty acids that has been studied in model plants [18,19]. However, the pecan GDSL-type esterase/lipase genes have not been previously identified, and little is known about their regulatory mechanisms and responses to salt stress. In this study, the GDSL-type esterase/lipase genes were identified and analyzed in pecan, including their gene structures and protein physicochemical properties due to the importance of this gene family to dried fruit plants that primarily accumulate fatty acids. In addition, this study included a systematic evolutionary comparison analysis with model plants and an investigation of the changes in gene and protein expression levels with salt stress, providing a research basis for the regulation mechanism of GDSL esterase/lipase in pecan.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material and Sample Preparation under Salt Stress

The “Pawnee” pecan seedlings were collected at the three-leaf stage and transferred to a plastic hydroponic container (1000 × 40 × 28 cm, 15 plants per pot), with air pump ventilation containing a half-strength Hoagland solution. The solution was replaced weekly, and after 45 days of stable cultivation, the pecan seedlings were treated with variable concentrations of NaCl and collected for further experiments [20]. The seedlings were grown in hydroponic containers in the polyethylene (PE) greenhouse under natural light at 26 ± 3 °C air temperature and 75 ± 5% relative humidity (RH). The greenhouse uses a natural ventilation system to exchange the air inside and outside the greenhouse, and the PE greenhouse was isolated by gauze to avoid the spread of external pests. In detail, we collected the plants, which were divided into four groups, including the control group (no NaCl added), 0.3% NaCl treatment, 0.6% NaCl treatment, or 0.9% NaCl treatment for 24 h. Each group was done in triplicate, containing three leaves, three stems, and three roots. The collected samples were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen for further analysis.

2.2. The GDSL-Type Esterase/Lipase Genes in the Pecan Genome and Subcellular Localization Analysis

The “Pawnee” pecan genome and protein sequences were downloaded from the Juglandaceae Plants database (http://www.juglandaceae.net/genome/cil/, accessed on 20 March 2021) [21]. The hidden Markov model (HMM) profiles of the GDSL-type esterase/lipase domain were then identified using the CLC Genomics Workbench software version 12.0 (QIAGEN, https://www.qiagen.com, accessed on 25 March 2021), based on the Pfam database (Pfam-A v32, http://pfam.xfam.org/, accessed on 17 May 2021). The physicochemical properties, including amino acid number, molecular weight, and isoelectric point (pI) of GDSLs, were predicted using ExPASy (https://web.expasy.org/protparam/, accessed on 16 July 2021). Additionally, subcellular localization was predicted with the WoLFPSORT online program (https://wolfpsort.hgc.jp/, accessed on 17 July 2021). Six GDSLs were randomly selected for transient expression analysis to validate the above-predicted results in silico. The specifics are as follows: a biotechnology company (Sangon Biotech, Shanghai, China) was directly commissioned to synthesize the GDSL coding sequence. Subsequently, infusion recombinase was used to insert the coding sequences into the pCAMBIA1300-GFP vector, resulting in the construction of a GDSL-GFP fusion gene driven by the CaMV-35S promoter, according to the relevant literature [22]. After transient expression in the leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana for two days, the GFP fluorescence signal was detected by using a Nikon C2-ER microscope (Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a 488 nm excitation light, as previously described [23].

2.3. Phylogenetic Analysis, Gene Structure, and Cis-Acting Elements in GDSL Promoter Regions

The sequences of GDSL-type esterase/lipase genes from Arabidopsis were downloaded from the UniProt database (https://www.uniprot.org/, accessed on 22 July 2021). The identified GDSL-type esterase/lipase genes from pecan and Arabidopsis were then used to construct the phylogenetic tree using the CLC genomic workbench v 12.0 based on the neighbor-joining (NJ) method with 1000 bootstrap replicates. The phylogenetic tree was visualized in Figtree v1.4.3 [24].
The online MEME Suite (http://meme.nbcr.net/meme/intro.html, accessed on 28 July 2021) was used to analyze the protein sequences under the following parameters: The maximum number of motifs was 14. Furthermore, we first extracted the promoter sequences (the 2 kb sequences of the 5′ regulatory regions from the translational start sites) for every GDSL gene from the pecan genomic database and then submitted the sequences to the PlantCARE online tool (http://bioinformatics.psb.ugent.be/webtools/plantcare/html/, accessed on 30 July 2021) [25] to predict the cis-acting elements within the GDSL promoters. TBtools software (v1.0692) (https://github.com/CJ-Chen/TBtools, accessed on 29 July 2021) was used to visualize the conserved motifs and cis-acting element distribution. Phyre version 2.0 was used to look at the GDSL protein’s 3D structure as well. This tool can be found at: http://phyre2.phyre2.org (accessed on 30 July 2021).

2.4. Analysis of GDSL Expression Profiles Using qRT-PCR and Isobaric Tags for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ)

The total RNA Trizol Extractor (Sangon, Shanghai, China) was used to extract the total RNA from each sample (root, stem, and leaf). Furthermore, the total RNA was digested with DNase I and reverse-transcribed using the M-MuLV First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Sangon, Shanghai, China). Samples of cDNA were diluted to 1:5 with ddH2O for use in qRT-PCR. The gene-specific primers were designed using the OLIGO 7 analysis software [26] (Table S1). The qRT-PCR was run using an ABI Q6 (Applied Biosystems, Foster, CA, USA) with a 2× SG Fast qPCR Master Mix Kit (Sangon Biotech, Shanghai, China). The gene expression levels were calculated using the 2−ΔΔCT method [27], including three independent technical and biological replicates to validate the qRT-PCR data. All qRT-PCR reactions were normalized with the housekeeping genes CiActin (GeneBank: NC-056755.1) and β-Actin (GeneBank: NM-007393) [28,29]. Finally, HemI 1.0.3.7 software (http://hemi.biocuckoo.org/down.php, accessed on 20 August 2021) was used to generate the gene expression heatmaps based on the qRT-PCR data. Additionally, as previously reported [30], the protein extracts of pecan leaves were used to isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) analysis. To undertake a functional annotation analysis of the DEPs selected for GDSLs, we used the NCBI website (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, accessed on 9 November 2021). The proteomics data from mass spectrometry have been submitted to the Proteome Xchange Consortium (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org, accessed on 19 November 2021) under the dataset identifier PXD030031.

2.5. The Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analyses (WGCNA)

We performed WGCNA using the TBtools software (v1.0692) plugin-WGCNAshiny (https://github.com/CJ-Chen/TBtools, accessed on 26 May 2022), based on the expression levels from 87 GDSL genes in pecan with salt stress (as described above). The power of β = 12 (scale free R2 = 0.8) was selected as the soft-thresholding to ensure a scale-free network, with a minimum module size of 10. Module−trait associations were estimated using the correlation between the different tissues and the gene expression for salt treatments. The module with correlation coefficient >0.80 or <−0.80, and p-values <0.001, was defined as the sample-specific module. Finally, the co-expression networks were visualized through the OmicShare online tools (https://www.omicsshare.com/tools/, accessed on 26 May 2022) with a cut-off of the weight parameter obtained from the WGCNA set at 0.01.

3. Results

3.1. Characterization of the GDSL-Type Lipase Genes in Pecan

Following GDSL domain verification using CLC workbench tools, 87 GDSLs were identified (Table S2). The proteins had a molecular weight (MW) ranging from 10.88 to 116.46 kDa, and these GDSLs were named after their molecular weights. The physicochemical properties of the CilGDSLs are presented in Table S2. The GDSL coding sequence (CDS) length ranged from 504 bp (CilGDSL18.29) to 3135 bp (CilGDSL11.65), with an average sequence length of 1084 bp. Among these, 48 (55.17%) GDSL lipase genes had four introns, 12 (13.79%) had five introns, six (6.90%) had three introns, and nine (10.34%) had only two introns. Of the CilGDSL proteins, CilGDSL11.65 was the largest with 1044 amino acids (aa), while CilGDSL10.88 was the smallest containing 98 aa. Moreover, the pI varied from 4.34 (CilGDSL39.16) to 9.44 (CilGDSL31.75). According to the instability index, 15 proteins may not be stable (>40, possibly not stable; ≤40, possibly stable). Subcellular localization was also predicted with the WoLFPSORT online program (Table S2). The results of subcellular localization showed that most of the genes were localized within the extracellular matrix (25 proteins) and chloroplasts (22 proteins). In addition, the proteins were mainly localized in the cytoplasm (15 proteins), nucleus (six proteins), vacuole (five proteins), endoplasmic reticulum (five proteins), etc. To verify the above predicted results in silico, six GDSLs were randomly selected for transient expression analysis. The results showed that CilGDSL40.34, CilGDSL27.35, CilGDSL42.62, CilGDSL42.15, CilGDSL40.6, and CilGDSL40.49 were localized in the endoplasmic reticulum, cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane, extracellular matrix, and plasma membrane of Nicotiana benthamiana leaves cells (Figure 1), respectively. Except for CilGDSL40.49, five GDSLs (83.33%) revealed subcellular localization trends that were similar across WoLFPSORT prediction and transient expression analyses (Table S2 and Figure 1). The WoLFPSORT prediction analysis was found to be very reliable as a result of these findings.

3.2. Phylogenetic Analysis and Gene Structure of 87 GDSLs

To explore the phylogenetic relationships of the GDSLs in pecan, the amino acid sequences of 191 GDSL proteins, including 87 from pecan and 104 from Arabidopsis, were aligned and used to construct an unrooted phylogenetic tree using the NJ method. These GDSLs were grouped into two groups (I and II) and 12 subgroups, including A (35 GDSLs), B (11 GDSLs), C (16 GDSLs), D (35 GDSLs), E (4 GDSLs), F (30 GDSLs), G (3 GDSLs), H (5 GDSLs), I (30 GDSLs), J (1 GDSL), K (12 GDSLs), and L (9 GDSLs) (Figure 2 and Table S3). It is worth noting that subgroup C was classified as a separate clade, group II, whereas the other subgroups were classified as a single large clade (group I), implying that subgroup C may have a unique protein structure. In general, the GDSL genes from Arabidopsis and pecan were scattered and clustered in different branches but did not form independent branches. The results showed that CilGDSLs may have different biological and molecular functions in different branches.
To ascertain the structural characteristics of GDSL proteins in pecans, two HMM profiles of GDSL proteins were identified using the CLC Genomics Workbench tools based on the Pfam database, including PF00657.22 and PF13472.6, which correspond to two conserved domains, Lipase_GDSL and Lipase_GDSL_2, respectively. Further, motifs of the 87 CilGDSLs were identified using the MEME online program (Figure 3), and 14 well-conserved motifs were detected (Table S4). The correspondence between the conserved domains and the conserved motifs was shown in Table S5. It can be seen that the Lipase_GDSL domain (PF00657.22) was the primary feature of GDSL proteins in pecans, which was found in 11 subgroups. In contrast, the Lipase_GDSL_2 domain (PF13472.6) was found exclusively in group C. Among them, GDSL43.62 was the only gene that did not contain conserved motifs. Among the remaining 86 sequences, 59 contained more than 10 motifs, with most of them containing 12 or 13 motifs (49) and having similar structures, possibly leading to similar functions. In addition, there were three sequences with more than 20 motifs, namely GDSL11.65 (34), GDSL74.34 (21), and GDSL75.35 (26) (Table S4 and Figure 3). The results of motif analysis were in line with the results of the phylogenetic analysis, which suggests that CilGDSLs with the same motifs in the subgroup may have the same functions.
The online protein homology recognition engine Phyre 2.0 was used to predict the tertiary structure of 87 CilGDSL proteins, with 97.4–100.0% confidence and 46–82% identity. The results showed that their tertiary structures were composed of different numbers in α-helices and β-strands. Based on the classification results of its genetic evolutionary relationship (Figure 2), a GDSL protein was selected from each subgroup that could represent the tertiary structural characteristics of the members of the subgroup, and its tertiary structure was recorded (Figure 4). The results showed that eight proteins (CilGDSL43.96, CilGDSL43.62, CilGDSL42.68c, CilGDSL39.88, CilGDSL46.74, CilGDSL38.63, CilGDSL39.49, and CilGDSL39.84) contained more than ten of the α-helices and β-strands. However, the remaining protein (CilGDSL43.42, subgroup K in Figure 3) contained four α-helices and the largest number (26) of β-strands, suggesting that its structure was more complicated and that it may perform different functions from the other proteins.

3.3. Detection of Cis-Acting Elements in Promoter Regions of CilGDSLs

According to the functional classification, a total of 12 main cis-acting elements were identified. The anaerobic induction regulatory elements and the action elements involved in the abscisic acid response were the most numerous in the GDSL gene promoter region, which were present in 68 and 66 GDSL gene promoter regions, followed by light response elements and jasmonic acid (JA) response elements present in 55 and 53 GDSL gene promoter regions (Figure 5). Taken together, MYB-related elements involved in drought response were detected in 40 GDSL genes. Three hormone-responsive regulatory elements were detected in the GDSL promoter region, and they were associated with gibberellin (GA), auxin (IAA), and salicylic acid (SA) responses. It is worth noting that only four GDSL genes (CilGDSL41.84, CilGDSL41.55, CilGDSL44.84, and CilGDSL51.58) have been identified with functional regulatory elements related to MYB flavonoid biosynthesis. In addition, components related to low temperature, defense, and pressure response were identified. Unfortunately, no elements associated with salt stress have ever been detected. In summary, the detection of the different types and numbers of regulatory elements in the GDSL gene promoter region indicates that GDSLs may be mainly involved in the response to environmental stresses such as light, drought, low temperature, and various hormone treatments.

3.4. Expression Profiles of GDSL Genes and iTRAQ Analysis in Response to Salt Stress

The pecan “Pawnee” variety was used to conduct salt stress treatment experiments and investigate the tissue differential expression profiles of the 87 GDSLs by qRT-PCR and iTRAQ analysis (only leaves). According to the heatmap, the genes could be divided into six groups (Figure 6). Among them, the expression levels of GDSLs in group II had relatively small tissue differences. Only some of the GDSLs in groups V and VI had large changes in expression levels, such as GDSL42.93 in the leaf and GDSL39.88 in the root, showing a large increase and decrease, respectively. In addition, the expression levels of GDSLs in groups I, III, and VI had relatively large tissue differences, with a disordered expression pattern. After salt stress treatment, iTRAQ analysis revealed the presence of a total of ten GDSL proteins (Table 1). According to the phylogenetic evolutionary relationship tree (Figure 2), these proteins were mainly derived from subgroups L and F, as well as subgroups A, C, D, K, and I, with no GDSL proteins detected in other subgroups in response to salt stress. Among them, except GDSL40.88, all exhibited an up-regulated expression pattern; in addition, only four proteins (CilGDSL38.59, CilGDSL42.57, CilGDSL31.4, and CilGDSL27.35) were unable to be activated in the presence of 0.3% salt stress treatment (Table 1), indicating that they are not sensitive to lower concentrations of salt stress. Compared with the gene expression heat map of 87 GDSLs, there are certain differences, namely that some genes with significant expression differences did not appear in the iTRAQ analysis results. As a result, the GDSLs mentioned above responded to salt stress in different tissues and concentrations, suggesting that they may play different regulatory roles in different tissues and concentrations under salt stress.

3.5. Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) of GDSLs in Pecan under Salt Stress

The weighted gene co-expression network was created to evaluate the association between the CilGDSL gene expression and different tissues for salt stress (Figure 7). First, WGCNA analysis of 87 CilGDSL genes produced five co-expression modules (Figure 7A), and one module was significantly correlated with phenotypes; the blue module was negatively associated with leaf tissue (module-trait correlations = −0.85, p-values = 0.00042) in response to salt stress. Next, the edges were screened by the criteria with a weight value of >0.01. The co-expression network was then visualized, and hub genes were identified using Omicshare’s online tools. Ten hub genes, including CilGDSL41.11, CilGDSL39.49, CilGDSL34.85, and CilGDSL41.01, were identified from the above module, as shown in Figure 7B. Additionally, the iTRAQ analysis revealed three DEPs (CilGDSL42.57, CilGDSL40.78, and CilGDSL41.11) with significant expression differences (Table 1), which also appeared in the co-expression network and as the hub genes. These key genes may play an important role in the leaf tissue for salt stress, which can be selected as the targets in future research.

4. Discussion

In this study, the results showed that only 87 GDSL genes were found in the pecan genome using the HMM profiles, which was less than the number of GDSLs in Arabidopsis (104) [1,7]. This could be related to the lower level of assembled genome in pecan (N50 scaffold length = 1.08 MB), which is a limitation. Previous studies have shown that most of the GDSL lipase genes in Arabidopsis are composed of four introns, consistent with the results of this study [2,31]. It is worth noting that the GDSL genes contained variable numbers of introns, including as high as 13 or as low as only one intron (Table S1). This variation may be caused by intron gain events. Related studies have shown that gains and losses of introns contribute to eukaryotic evolution [32,33]. These evolutionary events continue to occur, which may have a relatively large impact on the differences in gene structure and functional differentiation and may also be closely related to the occurrence and development of many biological processes and diseases. However, further exploration and verification are required in future studies of pecans. Many reports show that GDSL plays a vital role in plant immunity, particularly in rice and Arabidopsis [5,34,35]. In this study, phylogenetic analysis (Figure 2 and Table S3) demonstrated that GDSL-type esterase/lipase members CilGDSL39.88, CilGDSL41.44, CilGDSL41.67, CilGDSL41.84, and CilGDSL31.75 are related to the Arabidopsis pathogen defense GDSL gene GLIP4 (BAB01436, AEE75489, NP_188039, ANM63543, and NP_001325624). GLIP4 (BAB09701) clustered with CilGDSLs, suggesting that they may play a role in pathogen defense also in pecans. Similarly, the pecan GDSL esterase/lipase member CilGDSL26.86 and the Arabidopsis GDSL gene GLIP6 (EFH65081, AEE35163, and NP_177268) formed an independent branch “E”. However, their specific functions have not yet been verified.
In addition, the subcellular localization of the GDSL-type esterase/lipase members in pecans was primarily restricted to the extracellular matrix and chloroplasts, suggesting that they mainly perform related functions at the above-mentioned positions, similar to the results of previous studies [7,36]. Related research results show that GDSL lipase in the extracellular matrix, together with proteins and carbohydrates, participates in the closure of leaf stomatal regulation pathways [37]. Arabidopsis GDSL lipase mutant osp1 (occluded of stomatal pore 1) shows structural alterations to the stomatal cuticular ledge. In addition, they are necessary for leaf epidermal wax biosynthesis and stomatal cuticle formation to protect the underlying cells from radiation, drought, and pathogens [38,39,40]. This also provides an explanation and evidence for the localization of GDSL protein in the extracellular matrix. The bioinformatics analysis also demonstrated that the pecan GDSL members contained α-helix and β-strand structures as the primary components. This rule has also been found in the GDSL gene family of other plants. For example, the previous studies predicted the structures of multiple members of the rice GDSL gene family and found that the overall structure and folding pattern of the members are similar, but different members usually have specific irregular loops and inserted sequences [3]. These differences could change the protein folds and the active site, which could make different family members more or less capable of binding different types of substrates and having different biochemical functions. Previous studies have shown that AtFXG1 modifies xyloglucan oligosaccharides through the hydrolysis of t-fucosyl residues [41]. Furthermore, our group’s previous analysis concluded that the up-regulation of L-fucose accumulation is a critical feature of pecans’ metabolic regulatory network under salt stress [30]. CilGDSL42.57, which is homologous to AtFXG1, exhibits the largest expression change in response to salt stress. Hence, it is suggested that CilGDSL42.57 may be involved in the L-fucose metabolic process, which is linked to the pecan’s response to salt stress. Interestingly, CilGDSL42.57 was also found in the co-expression network (Figure 7B) as a hub gene associated with salt stress in leaf tissue. There were nine co-expressed genes with it in the co-expression network, which could be its key upstream or downstream regulators involved in the regulation of salt stress and play an important role in the co-expression network. However, the functional annotation of these genes is still unclear, and genetic transformation is required to determine their precise roles. Furthermore, given the importance of many motifs in biochemical function, it is important to point out that motif-10, motif-12, and motif-13 are all very similar in pecan GDSL phylogeny and protein conformation grouping (Table S5), which allows the GDSL esterase/lipase to work with a wide range of substrates. As a result, these motifs should be further investigated to ascertain their roles in the molecular function diversification of GDSLs in pecans.
Furthermore, 87 cis-acting elements in the promoter region of CilGDSLs were analyzed and identified. These results suggest that the expression of the above-mentioned CilGDSLs may be induced by hormones, chemicals, environmental stress, and pathogen infection. This is similar to earlier studies on Sedum alfredii Hance and grape berry (Vitis vinifera L.) [9,42]. It is worth noting that the novel findings in this study identified a large number of elements related to anaerobic induction. The waterlogging stress causes corn roots to be under a lot of pressure, which makes them less able to get the oxygen they need [43]. This causes changes in the expression of many genes that control lipid metabolism, glycolysis, energy metabolism, signal transduction, and photosynthesis. However, no detailed reports have linked the regulation and interaction between anaerobic induction and fatty acid metabolism. In addition, although related studies have demonstrated that some GDSLs are differentially expressed under salt stress [18,44], they have not yet found cis-acting elements related to salt stress in the promoter region of the GDSL genes, which is consistent with the results of this study. This may be due to these GDSLs indirectly responding to salt stress via distal promoters (beyond the detection region of the promoter in this study), or other promoters cooperating to induce pathways. However, these hypotheses need to be further verified.
According to the qRT-PCR analysis of 87 CilGDSL genes under salt stress conditions, different expression patterns in different salt stress concentrations and in different tissues and organs were detected (Figure 6). These results were similar to previously published reports [9,45]. For example, an early study by Cao et al. found that the Arabidopsis gibberellin delivery pathway regulates DELLA protein, down-regulating the expression of certain GDSL lipases in germinated seeds and closed flower buds [46]. The same gene showed opposite differential expression patterns in various tissues, even under the same salt stress concentration conditions, similar to CilGDSL40.49 (0.3% NaCl treatment in roots and leaves). The positive and negative regulation modes indicated that the genes may play different roles in different tissues. In addition, CilGDSL42.35, CilGDSL42.93, CilGDSL41.55, CilGDSL40.49, CilGDSL40.43, and CilGDSL41.6 were all up- or down-regulated in leaf tissue and belonged to the same branch “D”, according to the genetic evolution relationship (Figure 2); this suggests that they are specifically expressed in the leaf and have a role in salt stress and similar response mechanisms to related regulation. The qRT-PCR analysis results indicated that several GDSLs with high expression differences did not appear in the iTRAQ analysis, including CilGDSL27.88, CilGDSL40.38, CilGDSL42.93, and CilGDSL40.43 (Figure 6 and Table 1). Meanwhile, compared with the WGNCA analysis results, only three genes significantly associated with leaf tissue for salt stress appeared in the iTRAQ analysis results (Figure 7B and Table 1). Similarly, several studies reported a low correlation between mRNA and protein expression levels [47,48], suggesting that GDSL could have post-transcriptional modifications such as methylation or glycosylation in response to salt stress. Then, we only detected the expression of 10 GDSL proteins by iTRAQ analysis, implying that pecans respond to salt stress not mainly at protein levels or have the other more complex regulatory mechanisms, but still need further analysis and confirmation. In short, the pecan’s GDSL-type esterase/lipase genes and proteins respond to salt stress in a more complicated way, and they should be studied more to find out how they work and what their specific roles are through genetic transformation.

5. Conclusions

In this study, bioinformatic analysis of the CilGDSL gene family in pecan was carried out to identify the genetic structure, phylogenetic relationships, cis-elements in the promoter, and expression profiles of different tissues (roots, stems, and leaves), and salt stress. Some key expressed CilGDSL genes and proteins could be activated by salt treatment, according to qRT-PCR, iTRAQ, and WGCNA analysis, indicating that they may play a vital role in transcriptional and translational processes in the salt tolerance in pecans. This study will contribute to a deeper understanding of the pecan’s salt tolerance mechanism as well as a solid theoretical foundation.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/genes13071103/s1, Table S1: The primer sequences of 87 GDSL genes for qRT-PCR; Table S2: The list of identified GDSL members in this study; Table S3: The gene NAMEs of GDSL members from Arabidopsis; Table S4: Motif sequences identified by MEME tools; Table S5: Analysis of conserved motif in different groups of the phylogenetic tree.

Author Contributions

Data Curation, Validation, Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Supervision, Y.J.; Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, J.Z.; Visualization, Software, C.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ningbo Academy of Agricultural Science (grant number: NK201901).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Ningbo Academy of Agricultural Science for funding this research through the Ningbo Academy of Agricultural Science project (grant number: NK201901).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Lai, C.P.; Huang, L.M.; Chen, L.F.O.; Chan, M.T.; Shaw, J.F. Genome-wide analysis of GDSL-type esterases/lipases in Arabidopsis. Plant Mol. Biol. 2017, 95, 181–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Ling, H.; Zhao, J.; Zuo, K.; Qiu, C.; Yao, H.; Qin, J.; Sun, X.; Tang, K. Isolation and expression analysis of a GDSL-like lipase gene from Brassica napus L. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2006, 39, 297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  3. Chepyshko, H.; Lai, C.P.; Huang, L.M.; Liu, J.H.; Shaw, J.F. Multifunctionality and diversity of GDSL esterase/lipase gene family in rice (Oryza sativa L. japonica) genome: New insights from bioinformatics analysis. BMC Genom. 2012, 13, 309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Jiang, Y.; Chen, R.; Dong, J.; Xu, Z.; Gao, X. Analysis of GDSL lipase (GLIP) family genes in rice (Oryza sativa). Plant Omics 2012, 5, 351–358. [Google Scholar]
  5. Gao, M.; Yin, X.; Yang, W.; Lam, S.M.; Tong, X.; Liu, J.; Wang, X.; Li, Q.; Shui, G.H.; He, Z.H. GDSL lipases modulate immunity through lipid homeostasis in rice. PLoS Pathog. 2017, 13, e1006724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Ding, L.N.; Li, M.; Wang, W.J.; Cao, J.; Wang, Z.; Zhu, K.M.; Yang, Y.H.; Li, Y.L.; Tan, X.L. Advances in plant GDSL lipases: From sequences to functional mechanisms. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2019, 41, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Ling, H. Sequence analysis of GDSL lipase gene family in Arabidopsis thaliana. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2008, 11, 763–767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Clauß, K.; Baumert, A.; Nimtz, M.; Milkowski, C.; Strack, D. Role of a GDSL lipase-like protein as sinapine esterase in Brassicaceae. Plant J. 2008, 53, 802–813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ni, P.Y.; Ji, X.R.; Guo, D.L. Genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression analysis of GDSL-type esterases/lipases gene family in relation to grape berry ripening. Sci. Hortic. 2020, 264, 109162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Dong, X.; Yi, H.; Han, C.T.; Nou, I.S.; Hur, Y. GDSL esterase/lipase genes in Brassica rapa L.: Genome-wide identification and expression analysis. Mol. Genet. Genom. 2016, 291, 531–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Naranjo, M.A.; Forment, J.; RoldÁN, M.; Serrano, R.; Vicente, O. Overexpression of Arabidopsis thaliana LTL1, a salt-induced gene encoding a GDSL-motif lipase, increases salt tolerance in yeast and transgenic plants. Plant Cell Environ. 2006, 29, 1890–1900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Zumaquero, A.; Martínez-Ferri, E.; Matas, A.J.; Reeksting, B.; Olivier, N.A.; Pliego-Alfaro, F.; Barceló, A.; van den Berg, N.; Pliego, C. Rosellinia necatrix infection induces differential gene expression between tolerant and susceptible avocado rootstocks. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0212359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Wang, X.; Yang, Q.; Dai, Z.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Li, B.; Zhao, W.; Hao, J. Identification of QTLs for resistance to maize rough dwarf disease using two connected RIL populations in maize. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0226700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Manghwar, H.; Hussain, A.; Ali, Q.; Liu, F. Brassinosteroids (BRs) role in plant development and coping with different stresses. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 1012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Cheng, X.; Zhu, X.; Tian, W.; Cheng, W.; Sun, J.; Jin, S.; Zhu, H. Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of polyamine oxidase genes in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Plant Cell Tissue Org. 2017, 129, 237–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Manghwar, H.; Hussain, A. Mechanism of tobacco osmotin gene in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance: A brief history. Biocell 2022, 46, 623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Zhang, J.; Jiao, Y.; Shen, D.; Hong, C.; Wei, B.; Pan, C. Effects of salt stress on the fruit quality in pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch). J. Zhejiang Sci. Tech. 2022, in press. [Google Scholar]
  18. Shen, G.; Sun, W.; Chen, Z.; Shi, L.; Hong, J.; Shi, J. Plant GDSL esterases/lipases: Evolutionary, physiological and molecular functions in plant development. Plants 2022, 11, 468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Xu, Y.; Yan, F.; Zong, Y.; Li, J.; Gao, H.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Wang, Q. Proteomic and lipidomics analyses of high fatty acid AhDGAT3 transgenic soybean reveals the key lipase gene associated with the lipid internal mechanism. Genome 2022, 65, 153–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Zhang, J.; Jiao, Y.; Sharma, A.; Shen, D.; Wei, B.; Hong, C.; Zheng, B.; Pan, C. Transcriptomic analysis reveals potential pathways associated with salt resistance in pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch). J. Biotechnol. 2021, 330, 17–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Huang, Y.; Xiao, L.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, R.; Wang, Z.; Huang, C.; Huang, R.; Luan, Y.; Fan, T.; Wang, J.; et al. The genomes of pecan and Chinese hickory provide insights into Carya evolution and nut nutrition. GigaScience 2019, 8, giz036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Liu, S.; Liao, L.; Nie, M.; Peng, W.; Zhang, M.; Lei, J.; Zhong, Y.; Liao, H.; Chen, Z. A VIT-like transporter facilitates iron transport into nodule symbiosomes for nitrogen fixation in soybean. New Phytol. 2020, 226, 1413–1428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Zhao, Y.; Du, H.; Wang, Y.; Wang, H.; Yang, S.; Li, C.; Chen, N.; Yang, H.; Zhang, Y.; Zhu, Y.; et al. The calcium-dependent protein kinase ZmCDPK7 functions in heatstress tolerance in maize. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 2021, 63, 510–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Kramer, L.D.; Ciota, A.T.; Kilpatrick, A.M. Introduction, spread, and establishment of West Nile virus in the Americas. J. Med. Entomol. 2019, 56, 1448–1455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Lescot, M.; Déhais, P.; Thijs, G.; Marchal, K.; Moreau, Y.; Van de Pee, Y.; Rouzé, P.; Rombauts, S. PlantCARE, a database of plant cis-acting regulatory elements and a portal to tools for in silico analysis of promoter sequences. Nucleic Acids Res. 2002, 30, 325–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Rychlik, W. OLIGO 7 primer analysis software. In PCR Primer Design; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2007; pp. 35–59. [Google Scholar]
  27. Livak, K.J.; Schmittgen, T.D. Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2−ΔΔCT method. Methods 2001, 25, 402–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Zhao, X.Y.; Liu, A.Y.; Zhang, W.; Lv, S.J.; Ren, K. The effect of pecan oil on hippocampal cells apoptosis of ovariectomized rats. Procedia Eng. 2011, 18, 375–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Wang, L.; Zhang, L.; Chen, J.; Huang, D.; Zhang, Y. Physiological analysis and transcriptome comparison of two muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) cultivars in response to salt stress. Genet. Mol. Res. 2016, 15, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Jiao, Y.; Zhang, J.; Pan, C. Integrated physiological, proteomic, and metabolomic analyses of pecan cultivar ‘Pawnee’adaptation to salt stress. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 1841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Muralidharan, M.; Buss, K.; Larrimore, K.E.; Segerson, N.A.; Kannan, L.; Mor, T.S. The Arabidopsis thaliana ortholog of a purported maize cholinesterase gene encodes a GDSL-lipase. Plant Mol. Biol. 2013, 81, 565–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Xu, G.; Guo, C.; Shan, H.; Kong, H. Divergence of duplicate genes in exon–intron structure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 1187–1192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Wong, J.J.L.; Au, A.Y.; Ritchie, W.; Rasko, J.E. Intron retention in mRNA: No longer nonsense: Known and putative roles of intron retention in normal and disease biology. Bioessays 2016, 38, 41–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Oh, I.S.; Park, A.R.; Bae, M.S.; Kwon, S.J.; Kim, Y.S.; Lee, J.E.; Kang, N.Y.; Lee, S.; Cheong, H.; Park, O. Secretome analysis reveals an Arabidopsis lipase involved in defense against Alternaria brassicicola. Plant Cell 2005, 17, 2832–2847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Lee, D.S.; Kim, B.K.; Kwon, S.J.; Jin, H.C.; Park, O.K. Arabidopsis GDSL lipase 2 plays a role in pathogen defense via negative regulation of auxin signaling. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2009, 379, 1038–1042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Ren, R.; Yang, X.; Xu, J.; Zhang, M.; Liu, G.; Yao, X. Genome-wide identification and analysis of GDSL-type esterases/lipases in watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). Sci. Hortic. 2019, 289, 110461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Hegebarth, D.; Jetter, R. Cuticular waxes of Arabidopsis thaliana shoots: Cell-type-specific composition and biosynthesis. Plants 2017, 6, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Tang, J.; Yang, X.; Xiao, C.; Li, J.; Chen, Y.; Li, R.; Li, S.; Lü, S.; Hu, H. GDSL lipase occluded stomatal pore 1 is required for wax biosynthesis and stomatal cuticular ledge formation. New Phytol. 2020, 228, 1880–1896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ayaz, A.; Huang, H.; Zheng, M.; Zaman, W.; Li, D.; Saqib, S.; Zhao, H.; Lü, S. Molecular cloning and functional analysis of GmLACS2-3 reveals its involvement in cutin and suberin biosynthesis along with abiotic stress tolerance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 9175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Ayaz, A.; Saqib, S.; Huang, H.; Zaman, W.; Lü, S.; Zhao, H. Genome-wide comparative analysis of long-chain acyl-CoA synthetases (LACSs) gene family: A focus on identification, evolution and expression profiling related to lipid synthesis. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2021, 161, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Zhang, H.; Wang, M.; Li, Y.; Yan, W.; Chang, Z.; Ni, H.; Chen, Z.; Wu, J.; Xu, C.; Deng, X.; et al. GDSL esterase/lipases OsGELP34 and OsGELP110/OsGELP115 are essential for rice pollen development. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 2020, 62, 1574–1593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Li, H.; Han, X.; Qiu, W.; Xu, D.; Wang, Y.; Yu, M.; Hu, X.; Zhuo, R. Identification and expression analysis of the GDSL esterase/lipase family genes, and the characterization of SaGLIP8 in Sedum alfredii Hance under cadmium stress. PeerJ 2019, 7, e6741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  43. Zhang, Z.; Zou, X.; Tang, W.; Zheng, Y. Revelation on early response and molecular mechanism of submergence tolerance in maize roots by microarray and suppression subtractive hybridization. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2006, 58, 53–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Subudhi, P.K.; Shankar, R.; Jain, M. Whole genome sequence analysis of rice genotypes with contrasting response to salinity stress. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 21259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Su, H.; Zhang, X.; Wang, T.; Wei, W.; Wang, Y.; Chen, J.; Zhou, Y.; Chen, M.; Ma, Y.; Xu, Z.; et al. Genome-Wide Identification, Evolution, and Expression of GDSL-Type Esterase/Lipase Gene Family in Soybean. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Cao, D.; Cheng, H.; Wu, W.; Soo, H.M.; Peng, J. Gibberellin mobilizes distinct DELLA-dependent transcriptomes to regulate seed germination and floral development in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 2006, 142, 509–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  47. Guo, Y.; Xiao, P.; Lei, S.; Deng, F.; Xiao, G.G.; Liu, Y.; Chen, X.; Li, L.; Wu, S.; Chen, Y.; et al. How is mRNA expression predictive for protein expression? A correlation study on human circulating monocytes. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. 2008, 40, 426–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Badreldin, A.A.; Bagheri, L.; Zhang, B.; Larson, A.N.; van Wijnen, A.J. Relative mRNA and protein stability of epigenetic regulators in musculoskeletal cell culture models. Gene 2021, 766, 145032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Genes 13 01103 g001 550
Figure 1. Subcellular localization of GDSLs in tobacco protoplasts. GFP signals were observed by confocal microscopy. Green represents green fluorescent protein (GFP) signals; red represents chlorophyll with autofluorescent light; gray represents bright field; merged images indicate the combined three channels. Similar results were obtained from three independent replicates, and representative images are shown. Bars = 20 mm.
Figure 1. Subcellular localization of GDSLs in tobacco protoplasts. GFP signals were observed by confocal microscopy. Green represents green fluorescent protein (GFP) signals; red represents chlorophyll with autofluorescent light; gray represents bright field; merged images indicate the combined three channels. Similar results were obtained from three independent replicates, and representative images are shown. Bars = 20 mm.
Genes 13 01103 g001
Genes 13 01103 g002 550
Figure 2. The phylogenetic tree of pecan and Arabidopsis GDSL proteins. The 12 subgroups (A–L) are denoted by a range of colors. The bootstrap value was calculated using 1000 replicates (only bootstrap values ≥50 were shown).
Figure 2. The phylogenetic tree of pecan and Arabidopsis GDSL proteins. The 12 subgroups (A–L) are denoted by a range of colors. The bootstrap value was calculated using 1000 replicates (only bootstrap values ≥50 were shown).
Genes 13 01103 g002
Genes 13 01103 g003 550
Figure 3. The distribution of conserved motifs among CilGDSL family members. The numbers in the colored boxes represent the 14 hypothetical patterns. All members’ names and cumulative E-values (<0.05) are displayed on the left side. The detailed information has been indicated in Table S4.
Figure 3. The distribution of conserved motifs among CilGDSL family members. The numbers in the colored boxes represent the 14 hypothetical patterns. All members’ names and cumulative E-values (<0.05) are displayed on the left side. The detailed information has been indicated in Table S4.
Genes 13 01103 g003
Genes 13 01103 g004 550
Figure 4. The tertiary structure of 12 representative predicted CilGDSL proteins in pecan. (A), CilGDSL44.84 (subgroup A); (B), CilGDSL43.96 (subgroup B); (C), CilGDSL43.62 (subgroup C); (D), CilGDSL42.68 (subgroup D); (E), CilGDSL26.86 (subgroup E); (F), CilGDSL39.88 (subgroup F); (G), CilGDSL46.74 (subgroup G); (H), CilGDSL38.63 (subgroup H); (I), CilGDSL39.49 (subgroup I); (J), CilGDSL42.55 (subgroup J); (K), CilGDSL43.42 (subgroup K); (L), CilGDSL39.84 (subgroup L).
Figure 4. The tertiary structure of 12 representative predicted CilGDSL proteins in pecan. (A), CilGDSL44.84 (subgroup A); (B), CilGDSL43.96 (subgroup B); (C), CilGDSL43.62 (subgroup C); (D), CilGDSL42.68 (subgroup D); (E), CilGDSL26.86 (subgroup E); (F), CilGDSL39.88 (subgroup F); (G), CilGDSL46.74 (subgroup G); (H), CilGDSL38.63 (subgroup H); (I), CilGDSL39.49 (subgroup I); (J), CilGDSL42.55 (subgroup J); (K), CilGDSL43.42 (subgroup K); (L), CilGDSL39.84 (subgroup L).
Genes 13 01103 g004
Genes 13 01103 g005 550
Figure 5. Predicted cis-elements in the promoter regions of CilGDSL genes. The names of the promoters are shown on the right side, and different colored squares represent different promoter elements.
Figure 5. Predicted cis-elements in the promoter regions of CilGDSL genes. The names of the promoters are shown on the right side, and different colored squares represent different promoter elements.
Genes 13 01103 g005
Genes 13 01103 g006 550
Figure 6. Heatmap of the CilGDSL gene expression patterns in pecan under salt stress conditions. CilGDSL gene expression levels were tested in the leaf, stems, and roots at the same time points (24 h) with different NaCl treatments (0, 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9%). The color scale depicts the degree of expression of each gene (log10) in a particular sample. The degree of up- or down-regulation is indicated by the intensity of red and blue colors, respectively.
Figure 6. Heatmap of the CilGDSL gene expression patterns in pecan under salt stress conditions. CilGDSL gene expression levels were tested in the leaf, stems, and roots at the same time points (24 h) with different NaCl treatments (0, 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9%). The color scale depicts the degree of expression of each gene (log10) in a particular sample. The degree of up- or down-regulation is indicated by the intensity of red and blue colors, respectively.
Genes 13 01103 g006
Genes 13 01103 g007 550
Figure 7. WGCNA analyses of GDSL genes and different tissues in pecan under salt stress conditions. (A), Heatmap of the correlation between the GDSL genes and different tissues in pecan under salt stress. Module trait relationship (p-value) for detected modules (y-axis, the number of genes in parentheses) in relation to different tissues (x-axis) for pecan. The module−trait relationships were colored based on the correlation between the module and the traits (the darker the color of the module, the more significant the relationship). The correlation coefficient was shown in each square and the p-value was listed in parentheses. (B), Interaction of the gene co-expression network of the CilGDSL hub genes in pecan under salt stress conditions. These genes are marked as node circles, and the size of the node circle is proportional to the edge weight. The line thickness indicates the strength of the relationship between two genes.
Figure 7. WGCNA analyses of GDSL genes and different tissues in pecan under salt stress conditions. (A), Heatmap of the correlation between the GDSL genes and different tissues in pecan under salt stress. Module trait relationship (p-value) for detected modules (y-axis, the number of genes in parentheses) in relation to different tissues (x-axis) for pecan. The module−trait relationships were colored based on the correlation between the module and the traits (the darker the color of the module, the more significant the relationship). The correlation coefficient was shown in each square and the p-value was listed in parentheses. (B), Interaction of the gene co-expression network of the CilGDSL hub genes in pecan under salt stress conditions. These genes are marked as node circles, and the size of the node circle is proportional to the edge weight. The line thickness indicates the strength of the relationship between two genes.
Genes 13 01103 g007
Table
Table 1. The iTRAQ analysis of DEPs in pecan leaf following 24 h of salt stress compared to controls. * The gene codes in description that were derived from Arabidopsis thaliana (TAIR10) (https://www.arabidopsis.org/index.jsp).
Table 1. The iTRAQ analysis of DEPs in pecan leaf following 24 h of salt stress compared to controls. * The gene codes in description that were derived from Arabidopsis thaliana (TAIR10) (https://www.arabidopsis.org/index.jsp).
No.GeneProtein SymbolDescription *Log2 (Fold Change) Subgroup
0.3%0.6%0.9%
1CilGDSL41.11LOC108993637GDSL-like Lipase, At5g33370-like1.28 1.371.27 L
2CilGDSL39.84LOC108993591Li-tolerant lipase 1, LTL1-like1.20 1.39 1.38 L
3CilGDSL31.75LOC108981353GDSL-like Lipase, At5g03610-like1.28 1.27 1.45 F
4CilGDSL38.59LOC108983791GDSL esterase/lipase APG-1.38 1.37 A
5CilGDSL42.57LOC108982502GDSL-like, AtFXG1-homologous-1.41 1.67 D
6CilGDSL40.34LOC108998072GDSL-like Lipase, At5g45670-like1.211.40 1.43 I
7CilGDSL27.88LOC108983860GDSL-like Lipase, At5g03610-like1.321.21 1.34F
8CilGDSL40.78LOC108988817GDSL-like Lipase, At5g33370-like0.83 0.94 0.80 L
9CilGDSL31.4LOC109012662GDSL-like Lipase, At4g28780-like-1.29 1.35K
10CilGDSL27.35LOC108981001SGNH hydrolase-type esterase, At5g62930-like-1.23 1.43 C
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Jiao, Y.; Zhang, J.; Pan, C. Genome-Wide Analysis of the GDSL Genes in Pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch): Phylogeny, Structure, Promoter Cis-Elements, Co-Expression Networks, and Response to Salt Stresses. Genes 2022, 13, 1103. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13071103

AMA Style

Jiao Y, Zhang J, Pan C. Genome-Wide Analysis of the GDSL Genes in Pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch): Phylogeny, Structure, Promoter Cis-Elements, Co-Expression Networks, and Response to Salt Stresses. Genes. 2022; 13(7):1103. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13071103

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jiao, Yun, Jianhong Zhang, and Cunde Pan. 2022. "Genome-Wide Analysis of the GDSL Genes in Pecan (Carya illinoensis K. Koch): Phylogeny, Structure, Promoter Cis-Elements, Co-Expression Networks, and Response to Salt Stresses" Genes 13, no. 7: 1103. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13071103

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop