Yield and Quality of Essential Oils in Hemp Varieties in Different Environments
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Materials
2.2. Environments, Trial Description and Characters Analyzed
2.3. Chemicals
2.4. Essential Oil Extraction Method
2.5. Apparatus, Sample Preparation, Identification and Quantification of Terpenes in EOs
2.6. Identification and Quantification of Phytocannabinoides in Inflorescences
2.7. Statistical analysis
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Weather Conditions
3.2. Inflorescences and EOs Yield
3.3. Phytocannabinoids Determination in Inflorescences and EOs
3.4. Characterization of EOs Composition
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | S. Osvaldo 2016 | Campoformido 2017 | Aviano 2017 | Maiano 2017 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sand (> 0.05 < 2 mm) (%) | 43 | 26 | 29 | 43 |
Loam (> 0.002 < 0.05 mm) (%) | 40 | 59 | 53 | 50 |
Clay (< 0.002 mm) (%) | 17 | 15 | 18 | 7 |
pH (KCl 1:2.5) | 7.35 | 6.4 | 7.1 | 7.2 |
Total calcareous (%) | 5.5 | 1 | 37 | 56 |
Active calcium carbonate (%) | 0.2 | n/a | 1.6 | 1.4 |
Organic matter (%) | 1.8 | 2.2 | 5.8 | 4.5 |
Total nitrogen (g kg−1) | 1.85 | 1.9 | 3.7 | 2.8 |
C/N | 10 | 6.8 | 9.2 | 9.4 |
Phosphorus available (mg kg−1) | 34 | 47 | 26 | 30 |
Potassium exchangeable (ppm) | 164 | 135 | 195 | 98 |
Environment | Previous Crop | Soil Tillage | Fertilization 1 | Sowing–Emergence Time | Irrigation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
S. Osvaldo-2016 | Wheat | Ploughing at 30 cm and n.2 pre-sowing harrowing | Pre-sowing: 0-60-0 N-P-K + 80 N in post-emergence | 20th–29th April | n.3 of 20 mm each |
Aviano-2017 | Corn | Ploughing at 30 cm and n.2 pre-sowing harrowing | Pre-sowing: 18-18-25.5 of N-P-K + 50 N in post- emergence | 13th–24th April | n.4 of 20 mm each |
Campoformido-2017 | Corn | Ploughing at 30 cm and n.2 pre-sowing harrowing | Pre-sowing: 5 t ha−1 of manure | 10th–22th April | - |
Maiano-2017 | Chicory | Ploughing at 30 cm and n.2 pre-sowing harrowing | Pre-sowing: 0-60-0 of N-P-K + 60 N in post-emergence | 11th–23th April | - |
Source of Variation | Degrees of Freedom | EOs a Concentration in Inflorescence | Inflorescence Yield | EOs Yield |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cultivar (C) | 2 | 34.38 *** | 21.28 *** | 27.13 *** |
Environment (E) | 3 | 7.68 ** | 12.68 ** | 0.82 ns |
C × E | 6 | 5.03 * | 5.05 * | 4.84 * |
LRI | Aviano | Campoformido | Maiano | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compound | Ferimon | Fedora | Futura | Ferimon | Fedora | Futura | Ferimon | Fedora | Futura | |
α-Pinene | 942 | 10.12 ± 1.01 | 11.34 ± 1.45 | 11.64 ± 1.42 | 10.25 ± 1.92 | 10.62 ± 1.44 | 11.53 ± 0.34 | 10.06 ± 1.19 | 11.84 ± 1.40 | 11.36 ± 0.69 |
Camphene | 946 | 0.19 ± 0.00 | 0.25 ± 0.03 | 0.28 ± 0.03 | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 0.30 ± 0.02 | 0.21 ± 0.10 | 0.23 ± 0.02 | 0.27 ± 0.02 |
β-Pinene | 984 | 4.49 ± 0.39 | 4.96 ± 0.53 | 5.24 ± 0.50 | 4.67 ± 0.53 | 4.68 ± 0.40 | 5.14 ± 0.13 | 4.43 ± 0.45 | 5.17 ± 0.24 | 5.15 ± 0.38 |
β-Myrcene | 992 | 9.91 ± 1.33 | 5.41 ± 0.79 | 7.17 ± 0.79 | 8.95 ± 1.42 | 5.77 ± 0.56 | 6.39 ± 0.34 | 10.01 ± 1.08 | 6.68 ± 0.58 | 6.61 ± 0.36 |
α-Phellandrene | 996 | tr | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 0.28 ± 0.03 | tr | 0.24 ± 0.03 | 0.25 ± 0.00 | tr | 0.23 ± 0.02 | 0.25 ± 0.00 |
δ 3-Carene | 998 | tr | 1.55 ± 0.22 | 0.59 ± 0.22 | tr | 1.58 ± 0.24 | 0.52 ± 0.19 | 0.22 ± 0.00 | 1.86 ± 0.14 | 0.45 ± 0.10 |
α-Terpinene | 1010 | - | tr | 0.25 ± 0.02 | - | tr | 0.22 ± 0.00 | - | tr | 0.23 ± 0.01 |
o-Cymene | 1025 | tr | 0.21 ± 0.07 | - | - | 0.31 ± 0.11 | - | - | 0.32 ± 0.07 | tr |
D-Limonene | 1035 | - | tr | - | tr | 2.55 ± 1.04 | - | - | 2.00 ± 1.15 | tr |
D-Limonene +β-Phellandrene | 1035 | 2.45 ± 0.12 | 2.38 ± 0.33 | 2.72 ± 0.30 | 3.66 ± 0.26 | 2.63 ± 0.33 | 2.77 ± 0.15 | 3.90 ± 0.18 | 2.53 ± 0.32 | 2.78 ± 0.31 |
β-Phellandrene | 1037 | tr | 0.48 ± 0.03 | 0.74 ± 0.26 | - | - | - | tr | 0.53 ± 0.31 | tr |
1,8 Cineol | 1040 | 0.88 ± 0.09 | 0.49 ± 0.04 | 0.64 ± 0.10 | 0.62 ± 0.04 | 0.49 ± 0.07 | 0.80 ± 0.06 | 0.71 ± 0.08 | 0.53 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.12 |
trans-β-Ocimene | 1042 | 1.44 ± 0.28 | 0.76 ± 0.08 | 0.45 ± 0.05 | 1.40 ± 0.33 | 0.90 ± 0.31 | 0.43 ± 0.04 | 1.40 ± 0.10 | 1.08 ± 0.26 | 0.52 ± 0.05 |
β-Ocimene | 1044 | 8.88 ± 2.01 | 4.93 ± 0.48 | 3.31 ± 0.32 | 6.94 ± 1.12 | 4.03 ± 1.47 | 2.92 ± 0.22 | 8.63 ± 0.48 | 4.89 ± 0.98 | 3.42 ± 0.31 |
γ-Terpinene | 1064 | tr | tr | 0.24 ± 0.02 | tr | tr | 0.24 ± 0.01 | tr | tr | 0.24 ± 0.02 |
cis-Sabinene hydrate | 1068 | - | - | - | - | tr | 0.18 ± 0.07 | - | - | tr |
Terpinolene | 1079 | 3.45 ± 0.42 | 4.63 ± 0.49 | 5.82 ± 0.56 | 3.22 ± 0.83 | 4.29 ± 1.85 | 0.55 ± 0.11 | 3.81 ± 0.40 | 4.90 ± 0.67 | 4.83 ± 0.64 |
Linalool | 1082 | - | tr | 0.21 ± 0.07 | tr | tr | 0.22 ± 0.08 | - | - | - |
trans-(-)-Pinocarveol + 2-Pinen-10-ol | 1126 | tr | 0.22 ± 0.01 | tr | 0.24 ± 0.09 | 0.21 ± 0.01 | tr | tr | tr | |
p-Cymen-8-ol | 1163 | - | - | - | - | 0.32 ± 0.12 | tr | - | 0.31 ± 0.09 | tr |
Cosmen-2-ol | 1210 | tr | - | - | 0.32 ± 0.23 | tr | - | 0.27 ± 0.13 | - | tr |
2-Nonen-4-one, 2-methyl- | 1215 | - | tr | - | tr | - | - | - | - | tr |
β-Curcumene | 1389 | tr | 0.23 ± 0.08 | tr | tr | 0.22 ± 0.01 | tr | tr | 0.24 ± 0.14 | tr |
7-epi-Sesquithujene | 1389 | tr | 0.21 ± 0.07 | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr |
β-Elemene, (-) | 1387 | 0.25 ± 0.02 | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr | tr |
Isocaryophyllene | 1406 | 0.67 ± 0.18 | 0.72 ± 0.13 | 0.81 ± 0.13 | 0.74 ± 0.13 | 0.89 ± 0.08 | 0.86 ± 0.11 | 0.56 ± 0.12 | 0.71 ± 0.11 | 0.92 ± 0.01 |
cis-α-Bergamotene | 1416 | 0.56 ± 0.02 | 0.46 ± 0.04 | 0.47 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.03 | 0.52 ± 0.02 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | 0.34 ± 0.03 | 0.48 ± 0.04 | 0.46 ± 0.08 |
Caryophyllene | 1420 | 22.00 ± 1.44 | 22.40 ± 1.48 | 20.52 ± 1.13 | 21.01 ± 0.98 | 20.72 ± 1.43 | 20.39 ± 1.31 | 21.88 ± 0.70 | 21.12 ± 1.18 | 21.43 ± 0.76 |
trans-α-Bergamotene | 1434 | 2.55 ± 0.22 | 2.98 ± 0.20 | 3.36 ± 0.25 | 2.61 ± 0.24 | 3.28 ± 0.24 | 3.22 ± 0.10 | 2.48 ± 0.16 | 3.19 ± 0.21 | 3.35 ± 0.25 |
α-Longipinene | 1444 | tr | 0.31 ± 0.11 | 0.26 ± 0.05 | 0.26 ± 0.18 | 0.27 ± 0.01 | 0.21 ± 0.00 | tr | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 0.32 ± 0.16 |
cis-β-Farnesene | 1454 | 3.38 ± 0.15 | 4.46 ± 0.20 | 4.43 ± 0.27 | 3.47 ± 0.20 | 4.51 ± 0.21 | 4.20 ± 0.14 | 3.36 ± 0.29 | 4.51 ± 0.29 | 4.40 ± 0.27 |
Humulene | 1457 | 9.20 ± 0.55 | 9.28 ± 0.29 | 8.62 ± 0.31 | 9.07 ± 0.16 | 8.67 ± 0.23 | 8.61 ± 0.37 | 9.18 ± 0.47 | 8.68 ± 0.16 | 8.88 ± 0.36 |
Aromandendrene | 1462 | 1.12 ± 0.11 | 1.46 ± 0.10 | 1.29 ± 0.15 | 1.23 ± 0.27 | 1.46 ± 0.07 | 1.55 ± 0.10 | 1.07 ± 0.10 | 1.36 ± 0.15 | 1.20 ± 0.07 |
β-Patchoulene | 1461 | tr | - | tr | - | tr | 0.34 ± 0.14 | - | tr | |
γ-Gurjunene | 1461 | tr | 0.28 ± 0.05 | 0.39 ± 0.10 | 0.24 ± 0.17 | 0.30 ± 0.02 | 0.34 ± 0.15 | tr | 0.25 ± 0.04 | 0.32 ± 0.06 |
α-Curcumene | 1473 | - | tr | - | tr | 0.33 ± 0.13 | tr | - | - | - |
β-Selinene | 1489 | 2.12 ± 0.21 | 3.13 ± 1.12 | 2.19 ± 0.29 | 1.78 ± 0.26 | 3.25 ± 0.26 | 2.49 ± 0.09 | 1.76 ± 0.13 | 2.92 ± 0.27 | 2.43 ± 0.38 |
Valencene | 1492 | tr | 1.17 ± 1.85 | 0.35 ± 0.06 | 0.23 ± 0.01 | 0.23 ± 0.00 | 0.44 ± 0.02 | tr | 0.23 ± 0.00 | 0.33 ± 0.05 |
α-Selinene | 1496 | 1.25 ± 0.15 | 2.37 ± 0.21 | 1.55 ± 0.20 | 1.34 ± 0.21 | 2.30 ± 0.19 | 1.76 ± 0.06 | 1.31 ± 0.08 | 2.06 ± 0.07 | 1.70 ± 0.30 |
α-Farnesene | 1503 | 0.45 ± 0.06 | 0.83 ± 0.13 | 0.51 ± 0.10 | 0.38 ± 0.02 | 0.73 ± 0.10 | 0.57 ± 0.03 | 0.38 ± 0.03 | 0.68 ± 0.18 | 0.58 ± 0.05 |
β-Bisabolene | 1506 | 0.48 ± 0.15 | 0.71 ± 0.13 | 0.78 ± 0.13 | 0.58 ± 0.04 | 0.68 ± 0.14 | 0.74 ± 0.16 | 0.50 ± 0.02 | 0.64 ± 0.08 | 0.72 ± 0.10 |
β-Elemene, (-)- | 1506 | tr | - | - | tr | tr | - | - | - | - |
γ-Muurolene | 1506 | tr | 0.25 ± 0.09 | 0.24 ± 0.02 | 0.20 ± 0.14 | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 0.19 ± 0.01 | - | tr | tr |
y-Gurjunene | 1506 | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 0.24 ± 0.08 | 0.34 ± 0.07 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 0.21 ± 0.01 | 0.37 ± 0.08 | tr | 0.20 ± 0.11 | 0.32 ± 0.14 |
γ-Cadinene | 1506 | - | 0.19 ± 0.06 | 0.27 ± 0.04 | - | tr | 0.17 ± 0.03 | - | tr | tr |
Selina -3,7(11)-diene | 1507 | 0.43 ± 0.11 | 0.36 ± 0.07 | 0.46 ± 0.13 | 0.41 ± 0.19 | 0.42 ± 0.10 | 0.54 ± 0.13 | 0.36 ± 0.07 | 0.37 ± 0.03 | 0.41 ± 0.06 |
β-Sesquiphellandrene | 1516 | 0.29 ± 0.03 | 0.50 ± 0.09 | 0.43 ± 0.07 | 0.33 ± 0.01 | 0.49 ± 0.08 | 0.41 ± 0.03 | 0.29 ± 0.01 | 0.46 ± 0.03 | 0.41 ± 0.03 |
(±)-β-Acoradiene | 1518 | tr | 0.20 ± 0.07 | 0.24 ± 0.02 | 0.20 ± 0.14 | 0.23 ± 0.00 | 0.25 ± 0.01 | tr | tr | 0.23 ± 0.00 |
δ-Cadinene | 1519 | 0.52 ± 0.25 | 0.47 ± 0.05 | 0.76 ± 0.10 | 0.49 ± 0.03 | 0.42 ± 0.07 | 0.88 ± 0.04 | 0.44 ± 0.07 | 0.37 ± 0.07 | 0.78 ± 0.06 |
Nerolidol | 1560 | - | tr | tr | - | tr | - | - | - | tr |
Germacrene B | 1570 | 0.88 ± 0.18 | 1.10 ± 0.15 | 0.92 ± 0.14 | 1.03 ± 0.33 | 0.82 ± 0.27 | 0.91 ± 0.07 | 0.96 ± 0.17 | 0.75 ± 0.07 | 1.03 ± 0.07 |
Caryophyllene oxide | 1584 | 5.48 ± 0.88 | 4.29 ± 0.35 | 4.04 ± 0.65 | 5.95 ± 1.31 | 6.07 ± 1.91 | 4.33 ± 0.14 | 5.44 ± 0.60 | 5.03 ± 0.84 | 4.25 ± 0.34 |
trans-Sesquisabinene hydrate | 1580 | tr | 0.21 ± 0.07 | tr | - | tr | - | - | tr | - |
(-)-Globulol | 1590 | tr | 0.27 ± 0.06 | 0.30 ± 0.03 | 0.34 ± 0.24 | 0.27 ± 0.04 | 0.32 ± 0.02 | tr | 0.22 ± 0.00 | 0.26 ± 0.03 |
Humulene epoxide 2 | 1592 | 1.88 ± 0.08 | 1.20 ± 0.17 | 1.10 ± 0.22 | 2.05 ± 0.61 | 1.45 ± 0.68 | 1.19 ± 0.06 | 1.81 ± 0.21 | 1.36 ± 0.19 | 1.17 ± 0.12 |
Aromadendrene oxide-(2) | 1594 | - | tr | - | tr | 0.93 ± 1.01 | tr | - | tr | - |
β-Guaiene | 1599 | 0.41 ± 0.20 | 0.29 ± 0.07 | 0.43 ± 0.10 | 0.35 ± 0.10 | 0.35 ± 0.03 | 0.50 ± 0.05 | 0.30 ± 0.04 | 0.24 ± 0.14 | 0.45 ± 0.03 |
Isovalencenol | 1640 | 0.33 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.13 | 0.30 ± 0.05 | 0.35 ± 0.24 | 0.26 ± 0.03 | 0.36 ± 0.04 | 0.24 ± 0.12 | tr | 0.30 ± 0.03 |
Isoaromadendrene epoxide | 1645 | 0.44 ± 0.11 | 0.35 ± 0.11 | 0.34 ± 0.06 | 0.48 ± 0.20 | 0.35 ± 0.06 | 0.37 ± 0.04 | 0.34 ± 0.09 | 0.23 ± 0.00 | 0.38 ± 0.04 |
Allohimachalol | 1652 | - | 0.19 ± 0.06 | tr | - | - | - | - | - | - |
α-Bisabolol | 1646 | - | - | 0.22 ± 0.07 | - | 0.25 ± 0.02 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | - | tr | 0.29 ± 0.02 |
7-epi-cis-sesquisabinene hydrate | 1660 | tr | 0.39 ± 0.14 | 0.30 ± 0.04 | 0.22 ± 0.15 | 0.21 ± 0.01 | 0.12 ± 0.03 | tr | tr | 0.39 ± 0.19 |
Cannabidiol | 2431 | 0.25 ± 0.05 | 0.85 ± 0.15 | 0.37 ± 0.03 | tr | 0.22 ± 0.01 | 0.37 ± 0.04 | 0.27 ± 0.08 | tr | 0.97 ± 0.12 |
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Vuerich, M.; Ferfuia, C.; Zuliani, F.; Piani, B.; Sepulcri, A.; Baldini, M. Yield and Quality of Essential Oils in Hemp Varieties in Different Environments. Agronomy 2019, 9, 356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9070356
Vuerich M, Ferfuia C, Zuliani F, Piani B, Sepulcri A, Baldini M. Yield and Quality of Essential Oils in Hemp Varieties in Different Environments. Agronomy. 2019; 9(7):356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9070356
Chicago/Turabian StyleVuerich, Marco, Claudio Ferfuia, Fabio Zuliani, Barbara Piani, Angela Sepulcri, and Mario Baldini. 2019. "Yield and Quality of Essential Oils in Hemp Varieties in Different Environments" Agronomy 9, no. 7: 356. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9070356