Sustainable Development of Controlled Environment Agriculture
1
College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
2
Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(9), 2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092129
Submission received: 23 August 2025
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Accepted: 3 September 2025
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Published: 5 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses)
1. Introduction
Controlled environment agriculture offers a sustainable and efficient solution to meeting humanity’s growing demand for food and agricultural products [1,2]. With the continuous development of modern cultivation technologies, environmental control techniques, as well as the application of new materials and renewable energy technologies, protected horticulture is moving towards low-carbon, energy-saving, labor-efficient, and intelligent paradigms [3,4,5,6,7,8].
This Special Issue, entitled “Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses”, is dedicated to exploring sustainable solutions for controlled environment agriculture. It focuses on the advantages and optimization directions of vertical farms and greenhouses within sustainable frameworks. The scope extends to cutting-edge innovations in production systems, including the application of low-carbon, energy-saving, labor-saving, information-based, and intelligent structures, materials, technologies, and equipment.
A total of 10 papers have been published in this Special Issue, including 1 paper on the application of novel covering materials, 2 papers on LED-based environmental regulation, 3 papers on nutrient management and cultivation techniques, 2 papers on greenhouse microclimate analysis, and 2 papers on low-carbon and energy-saving strategies. These studies provide strong theoretical and technological support for the sustainable development of modern agriculture.
2. Overview of Publications
2.1. The Impact of Reflective and Diffusive Covering Materials on Greenhouse Environment and Crops
Light, temperature, and humidity are critical environmental parameters for crop growth. Abdullah A. Al-Madani et al. (Contribution 1) conducted comparative experiments using PE-LD film as the control to evaluate the effects of PE-LLDPE reflective film and PE-EVA diffusive film as greenhouse coverings for cucumber cultivation. Results indicated that in the hot and arid region of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, the diffusive film significantly increased the proportion of scattered radiation, reduced indoor air temperature, increased relative humidity, and promoted cucumber growth and productivity. Although conducted in a specific climatic region, the study provides valuable insights for improving light, temperature, and humidity conditions in greenhouses through low-carbon, energy-saving physical solutions.
2.2. LED Light Environment Regulation and Root Zone Environment Management in Nutrient Solution Cultivation
Light serves as both an energy source and a signal for plant growth and development. Jinxiu Song et al. (Contribution 2) investigated the effects of nighttime LED supplemental lighting on tomato seedlings. Their results demonstrated that appropriate LED illumination at night in controlled environments significantly enhanced photosynthesis and antioxidant capacity, improving seedling health indices and accumulation of photosynthetic products. They recommended a PPFD of 200 μmol·m−2·s−1 for 2 h, providing theoretical guidance for optimizing the light environment in tomato nursery production.
Beyond light regulation, root zone oxygenation is essential for crop development. Oana Alina Nitu et al. (Contribution 3) studied the effects of increasing root zone oxygen concentration under LED lighting (380–840 nm) on lettuce grown in a nutrient film technique (NFT) system. Enhanced oxygen treatment significantly improved plant height, fresh weight, root length, and root biomass, highlighting the importance of optimizing root oxygenation alongside LED lighting to maximize crop yield and quality in nutrient solution cultivation.
Nutrient solution cultivation is not limited to vegetables. Ecaterina-Daniela Baciu et al. (Contribution 4) explored the feasibility of year-round soilless cultivation of mulberry. Their comparison revealed that aeroponic systems promoted the most vigorous growth, nearly doubling root length compared to soil cultivation due to improved oxygen and nutrient availability. This demonstrates the potential of aeroponics for mulberry production technology.
2.3. Nursery Nutrition Regulation and Information Management
Nitrogen application must align with the crop’s growth stage to balance vegetative and reproductive growth. Zhengnan Yan et al. (Contribution 5) examined the effects of nitrogen concentration during two stages—before and after flower bud differentiation—on chili seedling quality. Moderate nitrogen (15 mmol·L−1) in the first stage combined with high nitrogen (25.61 mmol·L−1) in the second stage enhanced carbon and nitrogen metabolism, increased biomass accumulation, and promoted both vegetative and reproductive growth, providing a theoretical basis for efficient nitrogen management in chili nurseries.
Similarly, Haolin Yang et al. (Contribution 6) studied the effects of salt stress on strawberry seedlings under greenhouse conditions. By integrating leaf spectral data with environmental factors such as temperature, they evaluated predictive models for leaf nutrient status. The study revealed correlations between leaf spectral properties and nutrient content, offering insights into the digital management of nutrition and environment in strawberry nursery production.
2.4. Microclimate Environment Assessment and Prediction
Protected agriculture enables environmental control, but the degree of control varies depending on region, greenhouse structure, covering materials, and supporting equipment. In southern China’s high-temperature, high-humidity season, Xinyu Wei et al. (Contribution 7) analyzed the spatial and temporal distribution of temperature and relative humidity in Venlo-type greenhouses. They assessed the performance and limitations of natural ventilation and fan-pad systems and constructed predictive environmental models. In northern China, Hongrun Liu et al. (Contribution 8) evaluated winter microclimates in different greenhouse types, establishing multi-factor environmental assessment indicators and analyzing the effects of structure and covering materials on internal temperature and humidity. These studies provide a scientific basis for optimizing greenhouse design, regional layout, and environmental management, contributing to climate-adaptive controlled environment agriculture.
2.5. Low-Carbon and Energy-Saving Demand and Development
With the intensification of climate change and environmental crises, protected agriculture offers high-efficiency resource utilization for sustainable food production. However, it also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Xialing Chu et al. (Contribution 9) conducted a life-cycle assessment of cucumber cultivation, revealing that greenhouse cultivation exhibits high total carbon emissions, with northern China higher than southern China. Plastic film use and fertilizer application were identified as major carbon sources, providing guidance for industrial layout optimization and carbon reduction strategies.
To improve production efficiency while reducing carbon emissions, efficient utilization of solar energy has become essential. John Javier Espitia et al. (Contribution 10) reviewed greenhouse solar energy utilization research from 1976 to 2024, summarizing key technologies, globally focused regions, and research trends based on publications, journal impact, and citations. This work highlights the ongoing global interest in integrating solar energy with greenhouse technology, offering valuable references for advancing energy-efficient controlled environment agriculture.
3. Conclusions
The ten works in this Special Issue provide valuable insights into efficient, low-carbon, energy-saving, and sustainable practices for controlled environment agriculture, covering topics such as novel materials, facility environment and regulation, crop cultivation and nutrition, and low-carbon, energy-saving strategies. Based on the objectives of this Special Issue and the studies presented, we identify several directions for future research. The first is to emphasize the system-level approaches in controlled environment production. Future works should integrate interdisciplinary research on materials and facility design, crop cultivation and nutrition management, energy-saving technologies, and environmental regulation [4,9]. Production systems should be continuously optimized according to local climatic characteristics [10,11]. The second is to foster the integration of automation, digitalization, and intelligent technologies. The application of theoretical models, artificial intelligence, and robotic technologies should be strengthened to improve operational efficiency, precision control, and predictability of production outcomes in controlled environment agriculture [12,13,14]. The last point is to promote low-carbon and energy-efficient innovations. Research should further develop and refine low-carbon and energy-saving technologies, including a life-cycle carbon emission assessment of production systems [15,16]. These efforts will improve resource use efficiency and provide stronger theoretical support and practical solutions for the sustainable and efficient development of controlled environment agriculture systems.
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing does not apply to this article.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deep gratitude to the authors who shared their results, to the reviewers who contributed to the scientific rigor, and to the editorial team at Agronomy for their continued support in the dissemination of scientific knowledge.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
List of Contributions
- Al-Madani, A.A.; Al-Helal, I.M.; Alsadon, A.A. Assessing the Effectiveness of Reflective and Diffusive Polyethylene Films as Greenhouse Covers in Arid Environments. Agronomy 2024, 14, 1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14051082.
- Song, J.; Zhang, R.; Yang, F.; Wang, J.; Cai, W.; Zhang, Y. Nocturnal LED Supplemental Lighting Improves Quality of Tomato Seedlings by Increasing Biomass Accumulation in a Controlled Environment. Agronomy 2024, 14, 1888. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091888.
- Nitu, O.A.; Ivan, E.Ş.; Tronac, A.S.; Arshad, A. Optimizing Lettuce Growth in Nutrient Film Technique Hydroponics: Evaluating the Impact of Elevated Oxygen Concentrations in the Root Zone under LED Illumination. Agronomy 2024, 14, 1896. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091896.
- Baciu, E.-D.; Miclea, I.; Cornea-Cipcigan, M.; Baci, G.-M.; Dezmirean, H.; Moise, A.R.; Bonta, V.; Ranga, F.; Bobiș, O.; Dezmirean, S. A Comparative Analysis of Different Growing Conditions of Mulberry (cv. Kokuso 21): From Conventional Nursery to Soil-Less Technique. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1584. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071584.
- Yan, Z.; Cao, X.; Bing, L.; Song, J.; Qi, Y.; Han, Q.; Yang, Y.; Lin, D. Responses of Growth, Enzyme Activity, and Flower Bud Differentiation of Pepper Seedlings to Nitrogen Concentration at Different Growth Stages. Agronomy 2024, 14, 2270. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102270.
- Yang, H.; Zhang, X.; Shi, Y.; Wang, L.; Chen, Y.; Wu, Z.; Lu, W.; Wang, X. Salinity Stress in Strawberry Seedlings Determined with a Spectral Fusion Model. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1275. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061275.
- Wei, X.; Li, B.; Lu, H.; Guo, J.; Dong, Z.; Yang, F.; Lü, E.; Liu, Y. Distribution Characteristics and Prediction of Temperature and Relative Humidity in a South China Greenhouse. Agronomy 2024, 14, 1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14071580.
- Liu, H.; Zhao, H.; Tian, Y.; Liu, S.; Li, W.; Wang, Y.; Sun, D.; Wang, T.; Zhu, N.; Tao, Y.; et al. From First Frost to Last Snow: Tracking the Microclimate Evolution of Greenhouses Across North China’s Winter Spectrum. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1663. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071663.
- Chu, X.; Zheng, L.; Li, J.; Cheng, P. Intensify or Alleviate? Measurement of the Impact of China’s Facility Agriculture on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Comparative Analysis Based on Cucumber Industry. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1403. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15061403.
- Espitia, J.J.; Velázquez, F.A.; Rodriguez, J.; Gomez, L.; Baeza, E.; Aguilar-Rodríguez, C.E.; Flores-Velazquez, J.; Villagran, E. Solar Energy Applications in Protected Agriculture: A Technical and Bibliometric Review of Greenhouse Systems and Solar Technologies. Agronomy 2024, 14, 2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14122791.
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Zhao, S.; Song, W. Sustainable Development of Controlled Environment Agriculture. Agronomy 2025, 15, 2129. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092129
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Zhao S, Song W. Sustainable Development of Controlled Environment Agriculture. Agronomy. 2025; 15(9):2129. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092129
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Shumei, and Weitang Song. 2025. "Sustainable Development of Controlled Environment Agriculture" Agronomy 15, no. 9: 2129. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092129
APA StyleZhao, S., & Song, W. (2025). Sustainable Development of Controlled Environment Agriculture. Agronomy, 15(9), 2129. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15092129
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