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Article

Water Saving and Environmental Issues in the Hetao Irrigation District, the Yellow River Basin: Development Perspective Analysis

by
Zhuangzhuang Feng
1,
Qingfeng Miao
1,*,
Haibin Shi
1,*,
José Manuel Gonçalves
2 and
Ruiping Li
1
1
College of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China
2
Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Agriculture School, CERNAS—Research Center for Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Bencanta, 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(7), 1654; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071654
Submission received: 14 May 2025 / Revised: 30 June 2025 / Accepted: 2 July 2025 / Published: 8 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)
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Abstract

Global changes and society’s development necessitate the improvement of water use and irrigation water saving, which require a set of water management measures to best deal with the necessary changes. This study considers the framework of the change process for water management in the Hetao Irrigation District (HID) of the Yellow River Basin. This paper presents the main measures that have been applied to ensure the sustainability and modernization of Hetao, mitigating water scarcity while maintaining land productivity and environmental value. Several components of modernization projects that have already been implemented are characterized, such as the off-farm canal distribution system, the on-farm surface irrigation, innovative crop and soil management techniques, drainage, and salinity control, including the management of autumn irrigation and advances of drip irrigation at the sector and farm levels. This characterization includes technologies, farmer training, labor needs, energy consumption, water savings, and economic aspects, based on data observed and reported in official reports. Therefore, this study integrates knowledge and analyzes the most limiting aspects in some case studies, evaluating the effectiveness of the solutions used.

1. Introduction

Water resources are a fundamental, natural asset for sustaining agricultural development [1,2], with agriculture accounting for 70% of global freshwater usage. Climate change is intensifying the seasonal variability in water resources’ availability, and when compounded with pollution, ecological degradation, and natural disasters, it poses a persistent threat to water security. Promoting the adoption of efficient water-saving technologies to enhance water resource utilization and irrigation efficiency has become a socioeconomically viable and strategically significant measure [3,4].
China, as a water-scarce country facing multiple challenges, such as ecological degradation and water pollution [5,6,7], considers the sustainable use of water resources a critical national strategy. The Yellow River Basin (Figure 1a), the second-largest river basin in China, spans diverse climatic zones. Its upper and middle reaches are located in arid and semi-arid regions, while the lower reaches are situated in semi-humid to humid zones. The basin serves as an essential economic zone and ecological barrier for the country [8]. Drought, water scarcity, and soil salinization are the primary issues impacting agriculture and ecological sustainability in the region [9,10,11].
The Yellow River Basin is hydrologically and geographically divided into three sections: upper, middle, and lower reaches, with the upper and middle reaches controlling 96% of the river’s total flow [12]. Implementing major national strategies for the sustainable use of water resources in the Yellow River Basin is crucial for optimizing ecological resource endowments and achieving regional sustainable development.
The Hetao Irrigation District (HID, Figure 1b), located in western Inner Mongolia, China (40.1–41.4° N, 106.1–109.4° E), is a typical large-scale salinized irrigation area in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, with elevations ranging from 1007 to 1050 m and a total irrigation area of up to 1.162 million ha using diverted water from the Yellow River. The HID is divided from west to east into five irrigation zones: Wulanbuhe (WLBH), Jiefangzha, Yongji, Yichang, and Wulate. This study focuses on the development status of the HID and its five sub-regions. The HID has an average annual precipitation of less than 210 mm, with 70% of rainfall concentrated between July and September, while annual evaporation exceeds 2100 mm. Therefore, irrigation is required throughout the crop growing season, and the area is almost entirely dependent on water diverted from the Yellow River, with irrigation accounting for over 95% of the total diverted water. Land use in the HID is primarily composed of grassland, wasteland, and cultivated land, with major crops including maize, wheat, and sunflower, as well as a certain proportion of melons, vegetables, and other crops.
At the same time, the implementation of water-saving renovation projects in the irrigation district and the enforcement of efficient water use policies have led to a significant reduction in agricultural water diversion. The Yellow River Conservancy Commission of China’s Ministry of Water Resources has conducted unified scheduling of Yellow River water allocation, gradually reducing the annual water diversion quota for the HID from 52 × 109 m3 to 40 × 109 m3. Consequently, the volume of drainage and salt discharge in the district has also decreased, exacerbating soil salinization in the HID [13]. Moreover, the continued expansion of cultivated land has intensified the contradiction between water supply and demand in the region.
The HID possesses a complete irrigation canal network, including a complex water delivery system capable of distributing water to farmlands. However, most canals are unlined earthen channels, resulting in approximately 40% water loss due to seepage at the regional scale. This leads to a decline in groundwater depth and causes secondary soil salinization. In arid irrigation zones, hydrological processes are primarily driven by irrigation water diversion, drainage, and crop water consumption. However, less than 50% of the salt entering the HID is discharged through the drainage system [14], resulting in widespread salt accumulation in most areas. The interaction of water and salt between shallow groundwater and fallow lands is critical for maintaining the water–salt balance under different land-use types [15,16].
Due to the reduced allocation of Yellow River water, the district has already promoted water-saving measures such as lining canals with low-permeability materials like concrete or geotextiles [17]. Since 2000, additional water-saving irrigation practices have been implemented, including deficit irrigation, crop structure adjustments, and land leveling [18].
On-farm water-saving measures include optimizing irrigation schedules, precision land leveling, and the use of water-efficient technologies [19]. Under reduced water supply conditions, modern technologies must be adopted to improve productivity and farmer incomes [20], such as precision land leveling and optimized irrigation schedules for furrow and surface irrigation systems. Drip irrigation systems are viable in areas growing high-value crops relying on groundwater, as they help redistribute soil salts and enhance the efficiency of soil moisture and nutrient use [21,22]. However, surface irrigation is still necessary in autumn to replenish root-zone moisture and leach salts. Achieving water savings in the HID requires promoting irrigation modernization across multiple scales, including both on-farm systems and collective irrigation–drainage infrastructure.
Water authorities in Inner Mongolia have adopted various technologies, such as the following: (a) improving water conveyance and distribution systems to reduce losses; (b) optimizing crop irrigation schedules and implementing moderate deficit irrigation; (c) enhancing efficiency through precision land leveling and furrow/surface irrigation systems; and (d) promoting new irrigation models like drip systems, which have been widely validated in studies conducted in the HID [17,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35].
However, studies by Cao et al. indicate that measures such as reducing autumn irrigation can help stabilize water-deficient farming areas but may also worsen soil salinization and reduce farmers’ net income [26]. Li et al. incorporated the role of field soil moisture and salinity in irrigation water allocation decisions into a broader irrigation water resource management framework [27]. In arid agricultural regions, plastic film mulching is an effective method to enhance crop productivity. Subsurface drip irrigation under plastic mulch can save up to 42% of water [28], though Zhang et al. noted that, until the relationship between crop yield and irrigation level is fully clarified, the economic return of the drip-mulch system may be lower than that of traditional surface irrigation systems [29].
Therefore, from a developmental perspective, this study proposes an integrated solution to the water-saving and environmental challenges in the HID, aiming to balance agricultural production, efficient water use, and ecological protection. It analyzes the synergistic effects across multiple dimensions—canal systems, irrigation technologies, agronomy, and drainage—and explores the role of off-season irrigation in regulating salt transport. Furthermore, it evaluates the applicability and improvement pathways of drip irrigation systems in salinized areas, providing technical and management references for high-quality agricultural development in the Yellow River Basin’s HID.

2. Methodologies

2.1. Data Sources

The data used in this study include information on the canal system of the HID, such as composition, length, and water conveyance efficiency—obtained from the HID Water Resources Development Center. Data on precision land leveling were derived from the study by Miao et al. [30], while crop planting area and crop structure data were sourced from [31] and the Bayannur Statistical Yearbook (1998–2020). Data on autumn irrigation and drainage/salt discharge in the HID were obtained from the Inner Mongolia HID Water Resources Development Center (http://www.zghtgq.cn) and references [32]. Drip irrigation-related data in the HID were collected from published literature [25,33,34,35,36]. The sources of all data used in this study are summarized in Table 1.

2.2. Sustainability Analysis

The quality of border irrigation was evaluated using two key indicators: the field water use efficiency coefficient (BWUF) and irrigation uniformity (Du) [19]. The BWUF represents the percentage of the total irrigation water that is stored in the crop root zone after irrigation, and it is calculated using the following equation:
B W U F = Z r e g Z a v g , Z l q ≥ Z r e g Z l q Z a v g , Z l q < Z r e g
where Zreg is the net irrigation water requirement depth (mm), Zavg is the average irrigation depth entering the field (mm), and Zlq is the average infiltration depth in the quarter of the field with the minimal infiltration (mm). Irrigation uniformity is an index reflecting the distribution uniformity of infiltrated water after irrigation, and its calculation equation is as follows:
D u = Z l q Z a v g

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Distribution Systems

The HID has implemented a series of measures to improve water use efficiency. One key measure has been the lining of canals with low-permeability materials such as concrete and geotextiles. The canal system water utilization coefficients for each sub-irrigation district from 2010 to 2020 are shown in Table 2. Since 2010, these coefficients have significantly increased, indicating that water-saving infrastructure projects and canal system improvements have achieved measurable results.
Due to the higher canal lining rates in the Jiefangzha, Yongji, and Yichang irrigation zones, their water utilization coefficients are correspondingly higher. The Ulanbuhe irrigation zone has also improved, with its coefficient reaching 0.49. Thanks to ongoing infrastructure upgrades and water-saving renovation projects, the overall canal system water utilization coefficient in the HID has risen to 0.53 in recent years. However, the district still faces multiple challenges, including spatial disparities in canal conveyance efficiency, system design complexity, delays in upstream water delivery, and heterogeneous soil conditions. Factors such as conveyance distance and irrigation network layout contribute to increased canal seepage losses. As a result, the upstream Ulanbuhe sub-district has an average canal system water utilization coefficient of only 0.44, whereas the mid- to downstream Yichang sub-district has reached an average of 0.58.
Ren et al. also found, through a study of typical irrigation–drainage units in the HID, that approximately 17% of the diverted water is lost due to canal seepage. Among this, about 12% of the seeped water is reused in farmland through exchange and redistribution across various land types and interactions with groundwater [37]. Furthermore, calculations show that the irrigation canal system contributes an annual water supply of approximately 0.32 × 109 to 0.71 × 109 m3 to Wuliangsuhai Lake and other lakes. These findings indicate that seepage losses during canal water conveyance are reintegrated into the hydrological cycle of the irrigation district.

3.2. Surface Irrigation

The present water use and water saving data of the modernized basin irrigation are presented in Table 3. This assessment shows that better irrigation performance and water saving require improved land leveling, inflow rates, and cut-off times in combination with adequate irrigation scheduling practices. The field evaluations of precise land-leveled (PLL) basins showed quite good distribution uniformity (Du), above 90%. However, high BWUF and low DP can be achieved when inflow rates are high enough to produce a quick advance and when the cut-off times were adjusted to reduce application depths to the values required to refill the root zone at the time of irrigation. It was concluded that good performance and high water saving may be achieved with basin irrigation in Hetao, nevertheless requiring an improved design of farm systems, including land leveling and inflow rates, and the implementation of irrigation scheduling to properly select the irrigation timings and the cut-off times [19]. Moreover, achieving these requirements requires appropriate training and support given to the farmers to change from traditional to modern irrigation management.
Water use efficiency and irrigation parameters under different irrigation management practices are shown in Table 4. The data indicate that maize achieves the greatest water savings when precision land leveling is applied, whereas the initial water savings for wheat and sunflower are relatively smaller, at 82 mm and 67 mm, respectively. However, when combined with cut-off adjustment measures, both wheat and sunflower demonstrate greater water-saving potential, with savings reaching 87 mm and 100 mm, respectively. These results suggest that maize and sunflower respond significantly to precision land leveling management.
According to reports compiled by local governments between 2012 and 2018, the number of agricultural construction machines used for land leveling and other basic farmland infrastructure projects in the HID is shown in Figure 2. The data indicate an overall increasing trend in the number of such machines across the district’s sub-regions. The Ulanbuhe and Jiefangzha areas have seen particularly notable growth, especially after 2015, while Yongji and Yichang have experienced more steady increases. This reflects regional differences in mechanization investment and policy support.
Through the promotion of precision land leveling and the modernization of border irrigation systems, the irrigation district has significantly improved irrigation water use efficiency. At the same time, the district has integrated traditional and modern technologies, providing training and support to help farmers gradually transition to precision irrigation management. However, several challenges remain. These include disparities in mechanization investment across regions, which lead to uneven improvements in technological effectiveness, and limited training resources for farmers shifting from traditional to modern irrigation practices. Overall, the HID is actively working to overcome these challenges through a combination of technological innovation, farmer training, and policy adjustments. In modern agricultural production, farmland development in irrigation districts should not pursue mechanization scale blindly but instead adopt context-specific approaches tailored to local resource endowments. This ensures that productivity gains are balanced with the goals of sustainable development.

3.3. Crop and Soil Management

Changes in cropping patterns and land use types in the HID are shown in Figure 3. The data indicate that corn, wheat, sunflower, and other cash crops account for an average annual cultivated area of approximately 544 × 103 ha, representing 85.2% of the total irrigated area. Between 1995 and 2018, a total of 639 × 103 ha of land underwent crop type conversion. Specifically, areas converted from wheat to other cash crops, sunflower, and corn were 6 × 103 ha, 3.53 × 103 ha, and 4.0 × 103 ha, respectively. In contrast, land converted from sunflower to corn, wheat, and zucchini amounted to 30.6 × 103 ha, 73.9 × 103 ha, and 3.4 × 103 ha, respectively. During this period, farmland area increased by 38.6%, and forested land rose by 74.8%, while grassland showed no significant change. Meanwhile, saline–alkali land, water bodies, desert areas, and residential/industrial land all exhibited a decreasing trend, declining by 95.9%, 50.4%, 68.5%, and 55.3%, respectively. Facility agriculture expanded significantly, increasing by 34.7 × 103 ha from 1995 to 2018.
Guo et al. [39] also confirmed a strong correlation between the spatial distribution of crops in the HID and the distribution of soil salinity types. Salt-tolerant crops, such as sunflower, are predominantly cultivated in moderately to severely salinized areas, whereas non-salt-tolerant crops, including maize and vegetables, are primarily confined to slightly or non-salinized zones. Conversely, cropping patterns and irrigation practices exert significant influence on the accumulation and spatial redistribution of soil salinity. For example, salt-tolerant crops such as sunflower are predominantly located in saline–alkali areas. The spatial and temporal characteristics of the cropping structure are also driven by economic incentives, as planting cash crops can generate higher direct income for farmers [40], thereby accelerating the shift from traditional grain crops to economic crops. While improving irrigation systems is generally regarded as an effective measure to reduce the Yellow River water intake, the phenomenon of “rebound irrigation” has resulted in a failure to reduce total water diversion despite improvements in irrigation efficiency. In fact, agricultural water consumption in the district has shown an upward trend due to expanded planting areas, changes in cropping structure, and an increase in the proportion of irrigated land [3]. Meanwhile, monoculture cropping systems lead to the unbalanced depletion of soil nutrients, the disruption of the microbial community structure, and a reduction in soil organic matter, ultimately resulting in soil degradation [41]. To mitigate the adverse effects associated with monoculture, it is necessary to adopt practices such as organic fertilizer application and conservation tillage to enhance soil organic matter content and improve the soil aggregate structure.
To improve the soil moisture and temperature conditions in farmland and enhance crop yields and economic returns, plastic film mulching is currently used over crop rows during planting in the HID. The usage and coverage area of plastic mulch from 2005 to 2020 are shown in Figure 4. At present, the total mulched farmland area has reached 0.58 × 106 ha, including 0.27 × 106 ha for maize, 0.24 × 106 ha for sunflower, and 0.08 × 106 ha for other crops. Farmers in the irrigation district typically recover the plastic film either after the autumn harvest or before spring sowing. However, due to time and cost constraints, the recovery rate of residual film fragments smaller than 20 cm2 is very low, and the overall recovery rate ranges between 70% and 80%. The commonly used mulch material is polyethylene, which achieves good durability and coverage performance, but its poor degradability poses risks of soil pollution and environmental pressure. Therefore, developing more environmentally friendly, biodegradable mulch films has become a key direction for promoting sustainable agricultural development in the HID.
The HID has implemented a range of technical and policy measures for crop and soil management, yet it continues to face several challenges. First, although subsurface drip irrigation and plastic film mulching have significantly improved crop yields and soil moisture-thermal conditions, the widespread use of non-degradable polyethylene film has resulted in serious soil pollution. The recovery rate of residual film remains at only 70% to 80%. Second, long-term soil salinization remains a pressing concern. Despite a reduction in the area of saline–alkali land, its adverse effects on soil quality and productivity persist. Climate change has further intensified the uncertainty surrounding water supply and demand, placing greater demands on irrigation district management.
In response, the HID has focused on optimizing cropping structure, integrating land resources, and promoting the adoption of modern technologies through supportive policies. However, achieving a balance between ecological conservation and agricultural production will require continued efforts in technological innovation, farmer training, and the optimal allocation of resources to address these complex management challenges.

3.4. Irrigation During the Non-Growing Season

Changes in the area and water consumption of autumn and spring irrigation are shown in Figure 5. The results indicate that the autumn irrigation area in the HID decreased by 11.02%, primarily due to the promotion of intra-regional water rights trading pilots among leagues and municipalities within the district [43]. Specifically, the autumn irrigation areas in the Yichang, Yongji, and Ulat irrigation zones decreased by approximately 14.9%, 16.9%, and 17.7%, respectively. Despite the overall reduction in irrigated area, the total volume of water used for autumn irrigation has shown a year-on-year increase. Notably, water use in the Yichang and Jiefangzha irrigation zones grew by over 50%, while Yongji and Ulat also saw increases between 30% and 50%, indicating an intensification in the water use per unit area in some regions. In contrast, the Ulanbh zone experienced a 32.40% reduction in autumn irrigation water consumption, mainly due to the poor water retention capacity of sandy soils and adjustments in cropping structure.
The spring irrigation area and water consumption have shown a marked increase from 2000 to 2021. In the lower reaches of the irrigation district, where soil salinization is more severe, the cropping pattern has gradually shifted toward sunflower cultivation. As a result, spring irrigation water use has generally exhibited an upward trend. In the Ulat zone, the spring irrigation area expanded, with water intake and drainage volumes in 2021 increasing by 34.73% and 410%, respectively, compared to 2000. Among the sub-districts, Ulat saw a significant increase in spring irrigation water use of 312.45%, while Yichang experienced a more moderate rise of 20.07%. The sharp increase in Ulat reflects the region’s progress in optimizing its irrigation structure and adapting to salinization challenges. Conversely, spring irrigation water use declined in the Yongji and Jiefangzha zones, largely due to limited water supply and adjustments in the cultivated area.
Agricultural water-saving in the HID is a key focus of water conservation efforts in the Yellow River Basin. Autumn irrigation accounts for over 30% of the total agricultural water consumption in the district, with the area irrigated in autumn covering more than 50% of the total irrigated area. To explore the water-saving potential of autumn irrigation, Cao et al. [26] showed that a 100% reduction in autumn irrigation would lead to a 30% reduction in the area planted with food crops, while the salt accumulation in the district would increase by 0.78 × 106 t.
In terms of spring irrigation, the overall water consumption in the district increased by 34.73%, but significant regional disparities exist. Despite these efforts, the district still faces severe challenges. The reduction in Yellow River water diversion limits the water supply, leading to a decrease in irrigation quotas during the non-growing season. Irrigation is the primary means of leaching salts from the root zone of the soil, and when the extent of irrigation is reduced, the negative impact of salt stress on crop growth becomes more pronounced. Additionally, the issue of uneven development and resource allocation across different sub-irrigation districts remains prominent. For example, in the Ulat area, increased irrigation water use has somewhat alleviated downstream salinization problems, but other areas, such as the Yongji irrigation zone, face the risk of crop water–salt stress due to an insufficient water supply.

3.5. Drainage and Salinity Control

Figure 6 shows the statistics of the water and salt discharge amounts for crop growth periods, autumn irrigation, and the entire year in the HID. Figure 6a illustrates the distribution of the average water diversion and drainage volumes for the crop growth period, autumn irrigation, and the entire year for the Ditch Canal Unit in the Jiefang Gate sub-irrigation area in 2019 [44]. It indicates that the average water volume for autumn irrigation accounts for 78.1% of the total irrigation water during the crop growth period, while the drainage volume during the crop growth period is only 59.3% of the drainage volume during the autumn irrigation period. The ratios of water diversion and drainage for the entire irrigation area during the crop growth period, autumn irrigation, and the entire year are 10.7, 4.9, and 7.1, respectively. The total salt discharged throughout the year is 56.8% of the salt input into the irrigation district, with autumn irrigation accounting for 62% of the total salt discharge. The salinity accumulation rate during the autumn irrigation period is 19.3%.
Figure 6b illustrates the water diversion and drainage, as well as the salt accumulation process in the HID from 2006 to 2019. Although the annual water diversion and drainage volumes in the HID fluctuate up and down during this period, the overall trend is a decline. On average, the annual water diversion decreases by 0.02 × 109 m3, while the annual drainage volume in the irrigation area decreases by 1.0 × 106 m3.
In the context of water-saving and salinity control management, the efficiency and maintenance of the drainage system face significant challenges. The annual salt discharge in the HID accounts for only 56.8% of the salt introduced into the region, which is closely related to the layout and operational efficiency of the drainage infrastructure. Additionally, the current drainage system is insufficient to accommodate the scale of water diversion, leading to localized salt accumulation. Another major challenge lies in the imbalance between water supply and demand, compounded by the reduction in Yellow River diversion volumes. In recent years, as the total annual water intake has decreased, salt discharge efficiency in downstream areas has markedly declined. According to Li et al. [45], the geological structure of the Hetao region is a typical rift basin, which limits water exchange between the irrigation district and external environments, rendering the formation of salinized zones largely irreversible.
Furthermore, with continued Yellow River diversion and intensive agricultural activities, water-soluble mineral ions from irrigation and fertilization practices continue to accumulate in the region. Autumn irrigation during the non-growing season plays a critical role in controlling soil salinity. Previous studies have shown that an autumn irrigation depth of 220 mm, combined with maintaining groundwater levels between 2.0 and 2.25 m achieves optimal salt leaching effects [46]. Research by Xiong et al. [47] also indicates that, since the implementation of agricultural water-saving policies in 1998, net water intake has significantly decreased, while soil salinity has shown a clear upward trend from 1995 to 2015. In addressing water diversion and drainage for salinity control, it is essential to account for the volume of water required to replenish groundwater. Only by maintaining a rational balance between diverted Yellow River water, drainage volumes, and ecological water replenishment can the district sustain a suitable water–salt environment for farmland and preserve ecological stability.

3.6. Drip Irrigation

Table 5 shows the benefits and irrigation water use efficiency (WUE) of drip irrigation under different crop types and irrigation quotas in the HID. The results indicate that, under high irrigation quotas (irrigation depth at 100% ET), corn, sunflower, and melon can produce higher yields, with water use efficiency exceeding 90%. In contrast, tomatoes and wheat generally do not require full irrigation under drip irrigation, with the irrigation depth being between 77% and 80% ET to achieve the highest yields. When the irrigation quota is significantly reduced, the WUE of tomatoes and melons decreases noticeably. When the irrigation quota is reduced by 40% to 60%, the WUE decreases by 12% to 36%, and the yield decreases by 18% to 52%. However, for corn, wheat, and sunflower, even when the irrigation quota is reduced, the WUE can still be maintained above 92%.
To maintain high WUE and yield levels, it is not feasible to simply reduce the irrigation quota. However, the above results suggest that food crops, compared to economic crops, achieve better water savings through deficit irrigation and water-saving techniques under drip irrigation. Zhang et al.’s research on drip irrigation under plastic film for corn also shows that, with a 57% reduction in water use, farm net profits can maintain a 23% increase [48]. When the irrigation depth reaches 70% to 80% ETc, optimal water use efficiency can be achieved [25], which is consistent with the findings observed in this study.
Table 5. The impact of different irrigation depths on yield and water use efficiency (WUE).
Table 5. The impact of different irrigation depths on yield and water use efficiency (WUE).
Crop TypeRelative Values to Their MaximumData Source
Irrigation CoefficientYieldWUE
Maize100%10.94Liu et al., 2017 [49]
80%0.961
70%0.921
60%0.850.97
50%0.760.92
Tomato100%0.970.83Zhang et al., 2017 [33]
80%11
70%0.910.95
60%0.760.91
40%0.480.64
Muskmelon100%11Jiang et al., 2015 [34]
80%0.860.89
70%0.830.88
60%0.820.88
Wheat100%77.30.66Liu et al., 2020 [35]
77%10.91
64%0.990.96
52%0.941
Sunflower100%10.92Yang et al., 2019 [36]
80%0.990.96
60%0.881
Based on the established drip irrigation zones in the HID, the Yellow River diversion drip irrigation projects can be categorized into three types according to water source: direct Yellow River water drip irrigation, lake-sourced drip irrigation, and combined well-canal drip irrigation systems, as shown in Figure 7. Specifically, lake-sourced drip irrigation utilizes the widely distributed lakes, which are recharged by irrigation return flows, Yellow River diversions, or spring floodwaters, providing both water storage and natural filtration functions. The combined well–canal system integrates groundwater and canal water to maintain groundwater balance, lower the water table, and reduce evaporation and salt accumulation. For direct Yellow River water usage, water storage ponds are constructed in areas where canal water supply interruptions are brief, ensuring a stable drip irrigation supply.
Among these, the total annual cost of lake-sourced drip irrigation is approximately ¥2900 ha−1, which is lower than that of direct Yellow River water drip irrigation (¥3600 ha−1) but slightly higher than the combined well–canal system (¥2850 ha−1). Compared to conventional surface irrigation methods commonly used in the Hetao region, drip irrigation systems, though requiring higher initial investments, demonstrate greater long-term cost-effectiveness. This is particularly evident in reduced water fees, electricity costs, and minimized water wastage. Surface irrigation often results in significant water loss due to soil evaporation and seepage, whereas drip irrigation delivers water directly to the crop root zone, significantly enhancing water use efficiency. Drip irrigation is especially suitable for the saline–alkali soils prevalent in the Hetao region. It enables effective crop growth while reducing overall water consumption and mitigating the risk of soil salinization during the growing season.
However, the widespread adoption of drip irrigation systems in the HID still faces numerous challenges. For example, crops such as tomatoes and melons exhibit higher sensitivity to water application levels under drip irrigation; significant yield reductions occur when irrigation quotas are reduced. This indicates substantial variability in crop-specific water requirements during drip irrigation implementation. A major constraint is the high initial investment associated with drip systems, including the costs of pipeline infrastructure and pump station installation. The source of irrigation water also significantly influences both the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of drip systems, with performance varying under different water supply conditions.
In addition, drip irrigation entails relatively high daily maintenance costs and technical demands, placing greater requirements on the professional capacity of system managers. Since the economic returns of drip irrigation are more evident over the long term, funding sources and allocation mechanisms for the initial investment play a crucial role in the adoption process. In the absence of strong policy support and market incentives, smallholder farmers often struggle to afford the high upfront costs, limiting the broad application of the technology. Qi et al. compared the economic benefits of traditional border irrigation and drip irrigation under plastic mulch in the Hetao region and concluded that, although drip irrigation conserves water and reduces nitrogen loss, border irrigation using diverted Yellow River water can yield higher economic returns under smallholder management systems [50]. Providing standardized water-saving subsidies to farmers could effectively enhance their motivation to adopt efficient irrigation practices and thereby facilitate the promotion of high-efficiency water-saving technologies across the district.

4. Conclusions

This study has provided a systematic analysis of the key challenges and strategic pathways in water resource management within the HID (HID) of the upper Yellow River. Confronted with the dual pressures of climate change and increasing competition for water, the district’s water-saving practices have evolved from isolated technological upgrades to a comprehensive restructuring of governance capacity. The modernization of water infrastructure has enhanced the regulatory performance of the water distribution network, while field-level management improvements—through technological adaptation—have reduced irrigation redundancy. For instance, the precise water allocation enabled by drip irrigation has significantly improved the efficiency of resource use, and the optimization of border irrigation systems has spatially restructured water distribution to improve uniformity. However, the modernization process has also revealed deeper contradictions. The expansion of cash crops has led to structurally increased water consumption, highlighting the tension between agricultural water-saving goals and industrial upgrading. While regulating autumn irrigation volumes has temporarily alleviated water demand pressure, it may also disrupt the regional water–salt balance. Moreover, the high costs of advanced technologies and the persistence of traditional farming practices underscore the socioeconomic constraints on technology adoption. Although the HID has achieved notable improvements in water resource regulation and utilization efficiency, substantial systemic challenges remain. This study offers empirical insights that are valuable for guiding integrated water resource governance in the HID and across the broader Yellow River Basin.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.F. and R.L.; methodology, J.M.G.; software, Z.F.; validation, Z.F., Q.M., and J.M.G.; formal analysis, H.S.; resources, H.S. writing—original draft preparation, Z.F.; writing—review and editing, Q.M.; visualization, Z.F.; project administration, J.M.G.; funding acquisition, H.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was jointly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (U2443210), the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region “Unveiling the List of Commanders” Project (2023JBGS0003), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52269014), and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFD1900602-06).

Data Availability Statement

The data are contained within the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the support granted to M. Feng by the China Scholarship Council (CSC, No. 202308150179). Additionally, we appreciate the support from the Coimbra Agriculture School (ESAC) and the Applied Research Institute of the Polytechnic University of Coimbra (IPC).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References

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Agronomy 15 01654 g001
Figure 1. The Yellow River Basin and the location of the HID.
Figure 1. The Yellow River Basin and the location of the HID.
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Figure 2. Changes in the crop planting structure in the HID.
Figure 2. Changes in the crop planting structure in the HID.
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Figure 3. (a) Evolution of cropping structure in the Hetao Irrigation District; (b) Land use change in the Hetao Irrigation District.
Figure 3. (a) Evolution of cropping structure in the Hetao Irrigation District; (b) Land use change in the Hetao Irrigation District.
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Figure 4. (a) Plastic mulch usage and coverage in the Hetao Irrigation District; (b) residual intensity of mulch film; (c) interannual variation in mulch film fragmentation rate (Data from Wang et al., 2017 [42]).
Figure 4. (a) Plastic mulch usage and coverage in the Hetao Irrigation District; (b) residual intensity of mulch film; (c) interannual variation in mulch film fragmentation rate (Data from Wang et al., 2017 [42]).
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Figure 5. (a) Autumn irrigation area, (b) autumn irrigation water volume, (c) spring irrigation area, and (d) spring irrigation water volume (Data from Li et al., 2024 [13]).
Figure 5. (a) Autumn irrigation area, (b) autumn irrigation water volume, (c) spring irrigation area, and (d) spring irrigation water volume (Data from Li et al., 2024 [13]).
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Figure 6. (a) Yellow River diversion and salt drainage during the crop growth period, autumn irrigation, and the entire year in the Hetao Irrigation District; (b) Water diversion, drainage, and salt accumulation in the Hetao Irrigation District from 2006 to 2019.
Figure 6. (a) Yellow River diversion and salt drainage during the crop growth period, autumn irrigation, and the entire year in the Hetao Irrigation District; (b) Water diversion, drainage, and salt accumulation in the Hetao Irrigation District from 2006 to 2019.
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Figure 7. Cost structure of drip irrigation with different water sources.
Figure 7. Cost structure of drip irrigation with different water sources.
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Table 1. Data organization.
Table 1. Data organization.
Irrigation System ComponentDataData Source
Distribution systemCanal efficiency, volume of water losses
Water losses on downstream canal end
Maintenance data; statistics		Hetao Irrigation District Water Resources Development Center (http://www.zghtgq.cn)
Surface irrigationNumber PLL equipment
Field per area per sector
PLL maintenance		Hetao Irrigation District Water Resources Development Center (http://www.zghtgq.cn)
Crop and soil managementCropping structure
Planting area
Mulch film usage
Mulch film coverage area		Yu and Shang, 2017 [31]
Xu and Song, 2022 [3]
National Bureau of Statistics of China (https://www.stats.gov.cn/)
Drainage and soil salinityLength of ditches, per type
Ditch types and length/sector		Hetao Irrigation District Water Resources Development Center (http://www.zghtgq.cn)
Autumn irrigationConsumed volumes/sector
Experiences of suppression; effects on soil preparation		Qian et al., 2024 [32]
Hetao Irrigation District Water Resources Development Center (http://www.zghtgq.cn)
Drip irrigationCost per ha
Type of drip system
Crop-irrigated		Hetao Irrigation District Water Resources Development Center (http://www.zghtgq.cn)
Table 2. Canal water use efficiency in different irrigation zones of the HID.
Table 2. Canal water use efficiency in different irrigation zones of the HID.
YearUlanbhJiefangzhaYongjiYichangUlatHID
20100.40.450.560.55
20110.410.470.530.54
20120.390.510.620.57
20130.410.470.540.63
20140.50.510.590.63
20150.50.550.510.520.510.52
20160.410.480.440.570.550.5
20170.460.460.470.530.580.5
20180.490.50.520.670.570.57
2019 0.47 0.520.51
2020 0.530.57
Average0.44 ± 0.0430.49 ± 0.0300.53 ± 0.0530.58 ± 0.0490.54 ± 0.0260.53 ± 0.033
The data in the table are primarily sourced from the unpublished technical report Research on the Total Agricultural Irrigation Water Use and Development Model in the Hetao Irrigation District Based on Ecological Security, authored by the Inner Mongolia Academy of Water Sciences and Shi Haibin et al.
Table 3. Evaluation indicators for traditional irrigation methods and post-precision land leveling irrigation.
Table 3. Evaluation indicators for traditional irrigation methods and post-precision land leveling irrigation.
IndicatorsFirst IrrigationSecond and Subsequent IrrigationsAll Irrigation Events
TraditionalPLLTraditionalPLLTraditionalPLL
DU (%)609566956495
BWUF (%)588962906090
DP (%)651135103910
DP stands for deep percolation, which represents the percentage of irrigation water lost to deep percolation.
Table 4. Water saving of modernized basin irrigation [19,38].
Table 4. Water saving of modernized basin irrigation [19,38].
Title 1MaizeWheatSunflower
Present water use (PWU, mm)534434435
Water use in precise zero-leveled basins (mm)366352368
Water Saving due to precise land leveling (mm)1688267
Water use in leveled basins, with cut-off adjusted (mm)350265267
Additional water saving (mm)1687100
Total water saving (TWS, mm)184169167
Relative water saving (TWS/PWU, %)343939
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Feng, Z.; Miao, Q.; Shi, H.; Gonçalves, J.M.; Li, R. Water Saving and Environmental Issues in the Hetao Irrigation District, the Yellow River Basin: Development Perspective Analysis. Agronomy 2025, 15, 1654. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071654

AMA Style

Feng Z, Miao Q, Shi H, Gonçalves JM, Li R. Water Saving and Environmental Issues in the Hetao Irrigation District, the Yellow River Basin: Development Perspective Analysis. Agronomy. 2025; 15(7):1654. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071654

Chicago/Turabian Style

Feng, Zhuangzhuang, Qingfeng Miao, Haibin Shi, José Manuel Gonçalves, and Ruiping Li. 2025. "Water Saving and Environmental Issues in the Hetao Irrigation District, the Yellow River Basin: Development Perspective Analysis" Agronomy 15, no. 7: 1654. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071654

APA Style

Feng, Z., Miao, Q., Shi, H., Gonçalves, J. M., & Li, R. (2025). Water Saving and Environmental Issues in the Hetao Irrigation District, the Yellow River Basin: Development Perspective Analysis. Agronomy, 15(7), 1654. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15071654

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