Quality Characteristics of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China and the Effect of Environments on Its Quality
by
,
Zhongtao Ma
,
Huizhen Ma
,
Zhifeng Chen
,
Xinyi Chen
,
Guodong Liu
,
Qun Hu
,
Fangfu Xu
,
Haiyan Wei
* and
Hongcheng Zhang
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology & Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2022, 12(11), 2757; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112757
Submission received: 9 October 2022
/
Revised: 2 November 2022
/
Accepted: 3 November 2022
/
Published: 5 November 2022
Abstract
:Four types of japonica rice including non-soft japonica rice from northern China planted in the northern region (NSJRNN), non-soft japonica rice from northern China planted in the southern region (NSJRNS), non-soft japonica rice from southern China planted in the southern region (NSJRSS), and soft japonica rice from southern China planted in the southern region (SJRSS) were adopted as materials to reveal the quality characteristics of japonica rice in southern and northern China and the effect of environments on its quality. Compared with NSJRNN, higher temperatures during the grain-filling stage in southern China resulted in poor processing and appearance qualities of NSJRNS and NSJRSS. Due to the increased protein content (PC), the eating qualities of NSJRNS and NSJRSS were bad. While for SJRSS, with low apparent amylose content (AAC) and few large-sized starch granules, the eating quality was better than that of NSJRNS and NSJRSS and even comparable to NSJRNN. Therefore, with a relative high PC of rice under high temperature condition in southern China, it could be one of the effective ways to reduce AAC appropriately to obtain a good eating quality of rice.
1. Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important food crops in the world. Indica and japonica rice are the two subspecies of cultivated rice [1,2]. China is the largest producer of japonica rice worldwide, accounting for the largest planting area and the highest yield of japonica rice [3,4]. There are two main japonica rice producing regions in China, one is the northern region and the other is the southern region. Three provinces including Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning Province are representatives of the northern japonica rice producing regions. Among them, the area and yield of japonica rice in Heilongjiang province accounts for 75% and 70% of the total three provinces, respectively. Jiangsu Province, Zhejiang Province, Anhui province, and Shanghai City are representatives of the southern japonica rice producing regions, of which Jiangsu province is the largest japonica rice producer in the southern rice region.
Although both southern and northern regions are the main producing areas of japonica rice in China, the climatic environment of these two regions are significantly different due to the varied latitude [5]. During the rice growing season, the climate in the southern region is characterized by heat and humidity, while it is cool with a large diurnal temperature difference and dry in the northern region [6]. Past studies have shown that the environment, especially temperature and light during the grain-filling stage, are important factors affecting the quality of rice. High temperature above the optimum impairs the accumulation of starch in the endosperm, resulting in immature starch granules packed loosely [7,8]. These characteristics increase the chalkiness degree and decrease the milled rice rate of japonica rice produced in the southern rice region [9]. Low average temperatures and large diurnal temperature differences have resulted in low protein content, consistence viscosity, and high pasting viscosities of japonica rice planted in the northern region [10,11]. These characteristics reduce the hardness, increase the adhesiveness, and improve the appearance of cooked japonica rice produced in the northern rice region [12,13]. As a result, the quality of most japonica rice in the northern region was better than that of japonica rice in the southern region for a long time [14].
Although some scholars [4,9,10] studied the quality characteristics of japonica rice in southern and northern China, most of them studied the differences in the quality between traditional southern non-soft japonica rice and northern non-soft japonica rice. In recent years, a new type of soft japonica rice with lower amylose content (8–14%) has been bred and cultivated in southern rice regions [9,15] in order to improve the eating quality of southern japonica rice. Some soft japonica rice cultivars, such as Nanjing 9108 and Nanjing 46, have won high praise in rice taste competitions many times in China and Japan [9], which means the eating quality of some soft japonica rice cultivars planted in the southern region can be comparable to that of japonica rice planted in the northern region. It was revealed that soft japonica rice was characterized by a large number of small starch granules, high starch swelling, high starch paste viscosity, and low starch consistence viscosity [4,16], which improve the eating quality of soft japonica rice with increased adhesiveness of cooked rice [17,18,19]. However, what are the differences of the quality among southern soft japonica rice, southern non-soft japonica rice, and northern non-soft japonica rice? How does the different environment in the south and the north influence the quality of rice? Little research has been carried out on these issues. Therefore, four types of japonica rice including non-soft japonica rice from northern China planted in the northern region (NSJRNN), non-soft japonica rice from northern China planted in the southern region (NSJRNS), non-soft japonica rice from southern China planted in the southern region (NSJRSS), and soft japonica rice from southern China planted in the southern region (SJRSS) were adopted as materials. The differences in growth environment, quality of processing, appearance and eating, and physicochemical properties of them (NSJRNN, NSJRNS, NSJRSS, and SJRSS) were studied to reveal the quality characteristics of japonica rice in southern and northern China and the effect of environments on its quality.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Test Materials and Classification
Four types of japonica rice, including NSJRNN, NSJRNS, NSJRSS, and SJRSS were adopted as experimental materials (Table 1). Wuchang City (Heilongjiang Province, China; 127°10′12″ E, 44°55′48″ N) was the site of japonica rice planted in the north. Yangzhou City (Jiangsu Province China; 119°15′0″ E, 32°13′48″ N) was the site of japonica rice planted in the south. Non-soft japonica rice from southern China and soft japonica rice from southern China were grown in Yangzhou City only due to the relative longer daylength in Wuchang City making the panicles of NSJRS and SJRSS fail to initiate and mature on time.
2.2. Experimental Design
Field experiments were conducted both in Yangzhou University and in the rice research institute of Wuchang City during the rice growing season from May to November in 2019. In the experiment, rice was mechanically transplanted with blanket seedlings. NSJRSS and SJRSS were sown on 22 May and transplanted on 17 June. Compared with NSJRSS and SJRSS, NSJRNS were sown on 17 June and transplanted on 7 July, which was 25 days delayed to avoid poor grain filling with high temperature at heading stage. NSJRNN were sown on 9 April and transplanted on 18 May. The hill spacing of rice was 30 cm × 13.2 cm with four seedlings per hill. The experiments were laid out in a three-factor randomized group design (ecological sites, soft and non-soft japonica rice and cultivars) with three replicates. A total of 150 kg hm−2 N was applied as urea in 3 splits: 40% one day before transplanting, 30% seven days after transplanting, and 40% at the fourth leaf age from the top. The water management, pest control, and other related cultivation of rice measures were implemented according to the requirements of high-yield cultivation.
2.3. Meteorological Data
Calculation of effective cumulative temperature for each rice cultivar based on the lower biological limit temperature (°C) of japonica rice. CT = ∑ (ADT−T0) ∗ GD. CT in the formula is cumulative temperature, ADT is average daily temperature, T0 is lower biological limit temperature (10 °C), and GD is growing days.
The climatological calculation method, the Angstrom–Prescott model, was used to convert sunshine hours into solar radiation. Q/Q0 = a + b ∗ (S/S0). Q in the formula is the global solar radiation, Q0 is the theoretical total solar radiation from outside the earth and from the atmosphere, S is the actual sunshine hours, and S0 is the theoretical sunshine hours. a and b are climatological constants, and a and b are 0.126 and 0.648, respectively [20]. CR = ∑ADR ∗ GD. CR in the formula is cumulative radiation and ADR is average daily radiation.
2.4. Processing Quality, Appearance Quality, and Gel Consistency of Rice
Brown rice rate (BRR), milled rice rate (MRR), head milled rice rate (HMRR), and gel consistency (GC) were measured according to the national standards of the People’s Republic of China (GB/T 17891-2017). The chalkiness rate (CHR) and chalkiness degree (CD) of rice were measured with a rice appearance scanner (MRS-9600TFU2L, Shanghai, China).
2.5. Eating Quality of Rice
According to the method of Zhu et al. [4], the appearance and taste value of cooked rice were determined by a taste analyzer (STA1A, SATAKE, Hiroshima, Japan) using the preset selection of ‘Japanese japonica rice’ for the detection line.
According to the method of Liu et al. [21], the hardness, elasticity, and viscosity of cool rice were determined using the SMS Texture Analyzer (TA. Xt. Plus, Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) equipped with a P/36R probe.
2.6. Determination of Apparent Amylose Content (AAC) and Protein Content (PC)
AAC was determined by the iodine adsorption method. The crude PC was measured using the Kjeldahl method, with an automatic Kjeldahl apparatus (Kjeltec 8400, Foss, Hillerød, Denmark).
2.7. Rice Flour Pasting Properties
Pasting properties of rice flour were determined using a Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA TecMaster, Perten, Sweden) and analyzed using the matching software TWC. The RVA characteristics included peak viscosity (PKV), hot paste viscosity (HPV), cool paste viscosity (CPV), breakdown viscosity (BDV = PKV − HPV), setback viscosity (SBV = CPV − PKV), and consistence viscosity (CSV = CPV − HPV) according to the AACC protocol (1995-61-02) and the RACI standard method.
2.8. Thermodynamic Properties of Starch
According to the method of Lu and Lu [22], the thermal properties of rice starch were determined using a differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyzer (Model 200 F3 Maia, Netzsch, Germany) and analyzed using the corresponding software. The DSC values include gelatinization enthalpy (ΔHg), onset temperature (To), peak temperature (Tp), conclusion temperature (Tc), retrogradation enthalpy (ΔHr), and retrogradation percentage (R) = ∆Hr/∆Hg × 100%.
2.9. Starch Particle Size Analysis
According to the method of Blazek et al. [23], the particle size distribution of starch was studied using a laser diffraction particle size analyzer (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern, England). The starch was dissolved in 95% ethanol and stirred at 2000 rpm.
2.10. Statistical Analyses
In characterizing the various parameters of rice, at least three replicate measurements were obtained unless otherwise specified. EXCEL2019 was used for data processing. Statistical analysis software SPSS 20.0 was used for data analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Temperature and Light Resources in Southern and Northern China during Rice Growing Season
Compared with NSJRNN, the ADT, average daily radiation (ADR), CT, and CR of NSJRNS during the grain-filling stage were 37.42%, 15.28%, 74.33%, and 8.05% higher, respectively (Table 2). Compared with NSJRNN, the ADT, ADR, CT, and CR of NSJRSS during grain-filling stage were 35.64%, 16.45%, 91.36%, and 22.84% higher, respectively, and the ADT, ADR, CT, and CR of SJRSS during grain-filling stage were 35.84%, 12.73%, 102.74%, and 26.02% higher, respectively.
3.2. Grain Weight and Yield of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
The 1000-grain weight (Figure 1a) and grain yield (Figure 1b) of NSJRNS were 0.31% to 3.98% and 15.73% to 25.06% lower than that of NAJRNN, respectively. For japonica rice in the southern region, there were differences in grain weight and yield between diverse cultivars, while Nanjing 9108 had the highest grain weight and grain yield.
3.3. Processing and Appearance Quality of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Compared with NSJRNN, the BRR, MRR, and HMRR of NSJRNS were 2.04% to 6.40%, 2.26% to 6.69%, and 2.50% to 5.54% lower, respectively, while the CD of NSJRNS was 39.21% to 61.06% higher (Table 3). The CHR and CD of NSJRSS were 90.69% and 145.65% higher than that of NSJRNN, respectively. The CHR and CD of SJRSS were 200.89% and 329.11% higher than that of NSJRNN, respectively. Compared with NSJRNS and NSJRSS, the CHR of SJRSS was 126.08% and 57.79% higher, respectively, and the CD of SJRSS was 187.00% and 74.68% higher, respectively. The results showed that the appearance quality of japonica rice planted in the south was poorer than that of japonica rice planted in the north.
3.4. Eating Quality of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Compared with NSJRNN, the hardness of cooked NSJRNS rice was 0.75% to 12.21% higher, while the taste value of cooked NSJRNS rice was 15.10% to 22.94% lower (Table 4). The hardness of cooked NSJRSS rice was 13.24% higher than that of NSJRNN, while the taste value of cooked NSJRSS rice was 19.29% lower than that of NSJRNN. Compared with NSJRNS and NSJRSS, the hardness of cooked SJRSS rice was 13.49% and 22.18% lower, respectively, while the adhesiveness of cooked SJRSS rice was 27.03% and 29.83% higher, respectively. The hardness of cooked SJRSS rice was 7.79% lower than that of NSJRNN, and there was no significantly difference in the taste value of cooked rice between NSJRNN and SJRSS.
3.5. AAC, PC, and GC of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Compared with NSJRNN, the AAC and GC of NSJRNS were 7.47 to 7.53% and 4.29% to 7.36% lower, respectively, while the PC of NSJRNS was 17.91% to 18.12% higher (Table 5). The AAC of NSJRSS and SJRSS were 7.74% and 45.75% lower than that of NSJRNN, respectively, while the PC of NSJRSS and SJRSS were 22.04% and 25.36% higher than that of NSJRNN, respectively. There was no significant difference in the GC between NSJRNN and NSJRSS, but the GC of SJRSS was 12.39% longer than that of NSJRNN. The AAC of SJRSS was 41.35% and 41.19% lower than that of NSJRNS and NSJRSS, respectively, while the PC of SJRSS was similar to that of NSJRNS and NSJRSS. The results showed that compared with japonica rice planted in the north, the AAC of japonica rice planted in the south was lower, while the PC of japonica rice planted in the southern region was higher.
3.6. RVA Characteristics of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Compared with NSJRNN, the SBV of NSJRNS was 51.99% to 85.19% lower, while the BDV and CSV of NSJRNS were 24.13% to 29.20% and 1.96% to 2.26% higher, respectively (Table 6). The SBV of NSJRSS was 17.26% lower than that of NSJRNN, while the BDV of NSJRSS was 37.59% higher than that of NSJRNN. The PKV and BDV of SJRSS were 23.18% and 117.08% higher than that of NSJRNN, respectively, while the SBV of SJRSS was significantly lower than that of NSJRNN. Compared with NSJRNS and NSJRSS, the PKV and BDV of SJRSS were 20.67% to 28.31% and 57.78% to 71.27% higher, respectively, while the CPV and CSV of SJRSS were 13.80% to14.55% and 21.82% to 34.60% lower, respectively.
3.7. Starch Thermal Properties of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Compared with NSJRNN, the To, Tp, Tc, and ΔHg of NSJRNS were 3.35% to 4.97%, 4.35% to 6.30%, 1.05% to 2.01%, and 2.94% to 16.67% higher, respectively, while the ΔHr and R of NSJRNN were 25.81% to 34.29% and 36.16% to 37.31% lower, respectively (Table 7). Compared with NSJRNN, the To, Tp, Tc, and ΔHg of NSJRSS were 2.64%, 1.81%, 0.31%, and 21.18% higher, respectively, while the ΔHr and R of NSJRSS were 38.61% and 49.25% lower, respectively. The To, Tc, ΔHr, and R of SJRSS were 2.85%, 1.74%, 46.53%, and 51.25% lower than that of NSJRNN, respectively, while the ΔHg of SJRSS was 9.72% higher than that of NSJRNN. Compared with NSJRNS and NSJRSS, the To, Tp, and Tc of SJRSS were 5.34% to 7.11%, 2.00% to 5.30%, and 2.04% to 3.10% lower, respectively.
3.8. Starch Granule Size of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Starch granules were classified into small- (<2 μm), medium- (2−10 μm), and large-sized (>10 μm) granules. Compared with NSJRNN, the large- and medium-sized starch granules of NSJRNS were 3.32% to 5.40% and 2.80% to 4.82% lower, respectively, while the small-sized starch granules of NSJRNS were 16.18% to 35.32% higher (Table 8). Compared with NSJRNN, the large-sized starch granules of NSJRSS were 17.38% lower, while the medium- and small-sized starch granules of NSJRSS were 1.69% and 0.62% higher, respectively. The large-sized starch granules of SJRSS were 53.38% lower than that of NSJRNN, while the medium- and small-sized starch granules of SJRSS were 1.57% and 21.89% higher than that of NSJRNN, respectively. Compared with NSJRNS and NSJRSS, the large-sized starch granules of SJRSS were 43.57% to 51.57% lower.
3.9. Correlation of Light and Temperature with Rice Quality, AC, PC, and Starch Grain Size
To elucidate the effect of southern and northern environments on the quality of japonica rice, a correlation of light and temperature with rice quality, AC, PC, and starch grain size was analyzed using NSJRNN and NSJRNS data (Figure 2). The BRR and MRR were significantly negatively correlated with ADR, while CHR was significantly positively correlated with ADT, ADR, CT, and CR. The taste value of cooked rice was significantly negatively correlated with ADT, ADR, and CT. The AC was significantly negatively correlated with ADT, ADR, CT, and CR, while the PC was significantly positively correlated with ADT, ADR, CT, and CR. In addition, starch granule size was negatively correlated with ADT, ADR, CT, and CR, but the correlations were not significant.
4. Discussion
4.1. Differences in the Quality of Non-Soft Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China
Compared with NSJRNN, higher temperatures during grain-filling stage in Southern China resulted in poor processing and appearance quality of NSJRNS and NSJRSS (Table 2 and Table 3). Previous research has revealed that high temperatures during grain-filling stage will inhibit the accumulation of starch and decrease grain plumpness [24,25], which will cause a reduction in the processing quality of rice [26,27]. This may be the reason for the light grain weight of NSJRNS (Figure 1b) and low MMR of NSJRNS and NSJRSS in this study. Meanwhile, more irregularly shaped and loosely packed starch will be accumulated in the rice endosperm due to the unstable grain-filling process in high temperature environments [28,29], which leads to higher CD in NSJRNS and NSJRSS.
Starch and protein are the two most important factors affecting the eating quality of rice [30,31]. Generally speaking, rice with high AAC starches require more energy and higher temperature for gelatinization and recrystallize more quickly to form a hard texture gel network after gelatinization, which results in a hard texture of cooked rice [17,32,33]. Protein in rice can limit the water absorption and swelling of starch during cooking [34,35]. Meanwhile, the denatured protein after heating forms gel matrix that strengthens the integrity of starch, thus reducing viscosity and increasing the hardness of cooked rice [36]. Previous studies found that high temperatures can weaken carbon metabolism and increase α-amylose activity in grains [24,37,38,39], thus inhibiting the formation of amylose and promoting the breakdown of starch granules. In this study, with relatively high temperatures during the grain-filling stage, the AAC and large-sized starch granules of NSJRNS and NSJRSS were lower than NSJRNN (Table 5 and Table 8), which can reduce the hardness and increase the stickiness of cooked rice [17]. In addition, it was reported that high temperature during the grain-filling stage can enhance nitrogen metabolism in grains [27,39], which increase the enzymatic activity of glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthase and, thus, accelerates the conversion of amino acids to protein. Here in this study, with relatively high temperatures during the grain-filling stage, the PC of NSJRNS and NSJRSS was high than NSJRNN, which resulted in a harder texture of cooked rice in NSJRNS and NSJRSS. It follows that compared with japonica rice planted in the north, it was easy to decrease the AAC (7.47% to 7.74%) while increasing PC (17.91% to 22.04%) for japonica rice planted in the south with its hot environment. The decreased AAC can reduce the hardness and increase the adhesiveness of cooked rice and, thus, improve the eating quality of rice slightly. However, the significantly increased PC not only counteracted the effect of decreased AAC, but also increased the hardness of cooked rice with less adhesiveness. Therefore, the quality of non-soft japonica rice planted in the south was poorer than that of non-soft japonica rice planted in the north.
4.2. Quality Characteristics of Soft Japonica Rice in Southern China
Soft japonica rice is a type japonica rice with a low amylose content, which is different in quality from traditional non-soft japonica rice. In this study, the appearance quality of SJRSS was not only worse than that of NSJRNS, but also worse than that of NSJRSS (Table 3). This may be due to more cavities on the starch surface of soft japonica rice [40], which can create wider spaces and enhance the random reflection of light, thus increasing the CD of SJRSS. Although the appearance quality of SJRSS was poor, its eating quality was better than that of NSJRNS and NSJRSS and even was comparable to NSJRNN (Table 4). It seems that the PC of japonica rice planted in the southern region was inevitably increased due to the higher temperatures during grain-filling stage (Table 5), which can increase the hardness of cooked rice [41,42]. However, soft japonica rice with AAC less than 14% makes its starch gelatinize easily (Table 7), and the gel network formed by recrystallisation was soft (Table 6), which reduces the hardness of cooked rice [17,32,33]. Similarly, previous studies have found that the starch dissolved from rice grains in boiling water when cooking gradually cover the surfaces of rice grains and form a thin film [43] and the thicker this film, the better the cooked rice appearance and adhesiveness. It was revealed that rice with more small-sized starch granules can increase the thickness of this film through increasing the amount of starch dissolved in water during cooking [17,44]. Maybe it is for this reason that the cooked rice of SJRSS with more small-sized starch granules was better looking and tasting than those of NSJRNS and NSJRSS (Table 8). Therefore, for the soft japonica rice planted in the south, the significant decrease of AAC and more small-sized starch granules not only compensated for the negative effect of high PC on the cooked rice [36,42], but also improved the eating quality of the rice.
Reducing AAC and PC of rice appropriately is an important way to improve the eating quality of rice [4,13]. Here in this study, although the levels of nitrogen fertilizer were the same both in the southern and in the northern rice growing conditions, the PC of japonica rice in the south (NSJRNS, NSJRSS, and SJRSS) was inevitably higher than that of japonica rice in the north (NSJRNN), due to the high temperatures in the southern rice region (Table 2 and Table 5). While in terms of actual rice production, the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied in the southern rice region was significantly higher than that in the northern rice region [45] because more nitrogen fertilizer was needed in southern soil with relatively low fertility due to a double, even triple, cropping system. This further aggravates the PC increase of japonica rice in the south [46,47] and may be that is why the eating quality of non-soft japonica rice in Southern China is poorer than that of non-soft japonica rice in Northern China for several decades [34,35,36]. Now, it is almost impossible to improve the eating quality of japonica rice planted in the south by reducing PC due to the specific climate and cropping system. It could be one of this effective ways to reduce the AAC of rice for the purpose of eating quality improvement, and the good eating quality of soft japonica rice in the south was the proof of that [32,33,48,49].
5. Conclusions
The processing and appearance of NSJRNS and NSJRSS were poorer than that of NSJRNN due to the high temperatures in the southern rice region. The high PC may be the reason that the eating quality of NSJRNS and NSJRSS were poorer than NSJRNN. Although the appearance quality of SJRSS was poor, its eating quality was better than that of NSJRNS and NSJRSS and even was comparable to NSJRNN due to its low AAC and low content of large-sized starch granules. An effective way to improve the eating quality of southern japonica rice may be to reduce the AAC of rice appropriately due to its PC being almost impossible to reduce. Meanwhile, the appearance quality of southern japonica rice needs to be improved further.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, H.W., H.Z. and Z.M.; methodology, H.W., H.Z. and G.L.; investigation, Z.M., H.M., Z.C., X.C., F.X. and Q.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.M.; writing—review and editing, H.W. and Z.M.; project administration, H.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 31971841); earmarked fund for the China Agriculture Research System (grant number CARS-01-28); earmarked Fund for the Jiangsu Agricultural Industry Technology System, China (grant number JATS [2021]502); the Key Research Program of Shandong Province, China (2021LZGC020), and the project was funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, China.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1.
Grain weight (a) and grain yield (b) of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China. A, Daohuaxiang2. B, Akitakomachi. C, Longdao18. D, Huaidao5. E, Wuyujing3. F, Huajing5. G, Nanjing9108. H, Nanjing5718. I, Xudao9.
Figure 1.
Grain weight (a) and grain yield (b) of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China. A, Daohuaxiang2. B, Akitakomachi. C, Longdao18. D, Huaidao5. E, Wuyujing3. F, Huajing5. G, Nanjing9108. H, Nanjing5718. I, Xudao9.
Figure 2.
Correlation of light and temperature with AC, PC, starch grain size, and rice quality. * Significant at p = 0.05. ** Significant at p = 0.01. Small, medium, and large particle mean the size of starch grain.
Figure 2.
Correlation of light and temperature with AC, PC, starch grain size, and rice quality. * Significant at p = 0.05. ** Significant at p = 0.01. Small, medium, and large particle mean the size of starch grain.
Table 1.
Test materials and classification.
| Type | Cultivar | Planting Site |
|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Daohuaxiang 2 | Wuchang city |
| Akitakomachi | Wuchang city | |
| Longdao 18 | Wuchang city | |
| NSJRNS | Daohuaxiang 2 | Yangzhou city |
| Akitakomachi | Yangzhou city | |
| Longdao 18 | Yangzhou city | |
| NSJRSS | Huaidao 5 | Yangzhou city |
| Wuyujing 3 | Yangzhou city | |
| Huajing 5 | Yangzhou city | |
| SJRSS | Nanjing 9108 | Yangzhou city |
| Nanjing 5718 | Yangzhou city | |
| Xudao 9 | Yangzhou city |
Table 2.
Temperature and light resources in Southern and Northern China during japonica rice grain-filling stage.
Table 2.
Temperature and light resources in Southern and Northern China during japonica rice grain-filling stage.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | ADT (°C) | ADR (MJ/m2) | CT (°C) | CR (MJ/m2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 18.17 | 12.54 | 400.48 | 614.35 |
| Akitakomachi | 17.80 | 12.63 | 382.20 | 618.87 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 17.03 | 12.46 | 323.30 | 573.16 | ||
| Average | 17.67 ± 0.58 b | 12.54 ± 0.09 c | 368.66 ± 40.33 c | 602.13 ± 25.19 b | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 24.53 | 14.44 | 653.70 | 649.71 |
| Akitakomachi | 23.91 | 14.50 | 612.00 | 637.97 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 24.40 | 14.44 | 662.40 | 664.15 | ||
| Average | 24.28 ± 0.33 a | 14.46 ± 0.04 a | 642.70 ± 26.94 b | 650.61 ± 13.11 b | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 23.39 | 14.68 | 696.10 | 763.18 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 23.44 | 14.33 | 712.40 | 759.64 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 25.06 | 14.81 | 707.90 | 696.07 | ||
| Average | 23.96 ± 0.95 a | 14.61 ± 0.25 a | 705.47 ± 8.42 a | 739.63 ± 37.77 a | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 23.18 | 14.06 | 751.00 | 801.21 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 23.49 | 14.22 | 755.40 | 796.24 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 25.33 | 14.14 | 735.84 | 678.86 | ||
| Average | 24.00 ± 1.16 a | 14.14 ± 0.08 b | 747.41 ± 10.26 a | 758.77 ± 69.258 a |
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD (standard deviations) with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). ADT is average daily temperature, ADR is average daily radiation, CT is cumulative temperature, and CR is cumulative radiation.
Table 3.
Processing and appearance quality of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | BRR (%) | MRR (%) | HMRR (%) | CHR (%) | CD (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 83.68 | 75.68 | 68.67 | 13.05 | 2.29 |
| Akitakomachi | 82.01 | 74.00 | 67.14 | 14.72 | 3.21 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 83.81 | 75.65 | 66.65 | 11.55 | 2.78 | ||
| Average | 83.17 ± 1.00 a | 75.11 ± 0.96 a | 67.49 ± 0.96 a | 13.11 ± 1.59 c | 2.76 ± 0.46 c | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 81.97 | 73.97 | 66.95 | 15.61 | 3.34 |
| Akitakomachi | 78.23 | 70.27 | 63.42 | 19.21 | 5.17 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 78.45 | 70.59 | 63.58 | 17.51 | 3.87 | ||
| Average | 79.55 ± 2.10 b | 71.61 ± 2.05 b | 64.65 ± 2.05 b | 17.44 ± 1.80 bc | 4.13 ± 0.94 c | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 85.52 | 71.09 | 65.6 | 26.19 | 7.01 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 85.45 | 72.7 | 66.3 | 22.87 | 6.21 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 84.61 | 70.34 | 65.58 | 25.92 | 7.12 | ||
| Average | 85.19 ± 0.51 a | 71.38 ± 1.21 b | 65.83 ± 1.21 ab | 24.99 ± 1.84 b | 6.78 ± 0.50 b | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 83.47 | 71.01 | 66.78 | 40.48 | 11.95 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 83.68 | 72.81 | 66.12 | 32.38 | 9.66 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 81.34 | 73.72 | 64.69 | 45.45 | 13.92 | ||
| Average | 82.83 ± 1.29 a | 72.51 ± 1.38 ab | 65.86 ± 1.07 ab | 39.44 ± 6.60 a | 11.84 ± 2.13 a |
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). BRR is brown rice rate, MRR is milled rice rate, HMRR is head milled rice rate, CHR is chalkiness rate, and CD is chalkiness degree.
Table 4.
Eating quality of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | Taste Analyzer Properties | Texture Properties | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taste Value | Appearance | Hardness (g) | Elasticity (%) | Adhesiveness (g) | |||
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 74.10 | 7.30 | 145.00 | 0.59 | 1281.10 |
| Akitakomachi | 77.50 | 7.80 | 200.50 | 0.63 | 1213.10 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 80.60 | 8.60 | 171.40 | 0.62 | 1176.40 | ||
| Average | 77.40 ± 3.25 a | 7.90 ± 0.66 a | 172.30 ± 27.76 bc | 0.62 ± 0.02 a | 1223.53 ± 55.12 b | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 57.10 | 4.60 | 162.70 | 0.57 | 1071.30 |
| Akitakomachi | 65.80 | 6.00 | 202.00 | 0.59 | 1005.60 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 68.00 | 5.90 | 184.90 | 0.61 | 1042.80 | ||
| Average | 63.63 ± 5.76 bc | 5.50 ± 0.78 b | 183.20 ± 19.71 ab | 0.59 ± 0.02 a | 1039.90 ± 55.69 c | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 64.10 | 5.10 | 222.16 | 0.58 | 1235.40 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 66.50 | 5.40 | 183.50 | 0.56 | 1095.50 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 56.90 | 4.40 | 179.67 | 0.55 | 1220.67 | ||
| Average | 62.47 ± 4.98 c | 4.97 ± 0.51 b | 195.11 ± 23.50 a | 0.56 ± 0.02 ab | 1183.86 ± 76.87 b | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 78.00 | 7.90 | 161.04 | 0.47 | 1518.60 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 69.70 | 7.00 | 148.72 | 0.51 | 1278.48 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 72.80 | 7.50 | 166.86 | 0.56 | 1354.49 | ||
| Average | 73.50 ± 4.19 ab | 7.47 ± 0.45 a | 158.87 ± 9.26 c | 0.51 ± 0.05 b | 1383.86 ± 386.65 a | ||
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
Table 5.
AAC and PC of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | AAC (%) | PC (%) | GC (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 17.53 | 6.39 | 84.5 |
| Akitakomachi | 17.35 | 6.42 | 78.3 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 17.80 | 6.29 | 80.2 | ||
| Average | 17.56 ± 0.23 a | 6.37 ± 0.07 c | 81.0 ± 3.18 b | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 16.21 | 7.54 | 79.3 |
| Akitakomachi | 16.05 | 7.57 | 73.3 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 16.47 | 7.43 | 74.3 | ||
| Average | 16.24 ± 0.21 b | 7.51 ± 0.07 b | 75.6 ± 3.21 b | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 16.04 | 7.65 | 83.4 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 15.69 | 7.73 | 81.8 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 16.87 | 7.93 | 79.5 | ||
| Average | 16.20 ± 0.61 b | 7.77 ± 0.14 a | 81.6 ± 1.96 b | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 10.04 | 7.77 | 91.5 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 8.70 | 7.98 | 93.3 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 9.84 | 7.85 | 98.2 | ||
| Average | 9.53 ± 0.72 c | 7.87 ± 0.11 a | 94.3 ± 3.47 a |
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). AAC is apparent amylose content, PC is protein content, and GC is gel consistency.
Table 6.
RVA characteristics of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | PKV (cp) | HPV (cp) | CPV (cp) | BDV (cp) | SBV (cp) | CSV (cp) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 2250 | 1578 | 2550 | 672 | 299 | 971 |
| Akitakomachi | 2296 | 1546 | 2485 | 750 | 189 | 939 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 2512 | 1803 | 2865 | 709 | 352 | 1061 | ||
| Average | 2353 ± 140 b | 1642 ± 140 a | 2633 ± 203 a | 710 ± 39 b | 280 ± 83 a | 990 ± 63 ab | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 2297 | 1443 | 2433 | 854 | 136 | 990 |
| Akitakomachi | 2344 | 1413 | 2371 | 931 | 28 | 959 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 2564 | 1648 | 2733 | 916 | 169 | 1085 | ||
| Average | 2402 ± 143 b | 1501 ± 128 a | 2512 ± 194 a | 900 ± 41 b | 111 ± 74 a | 1011 ± 66 ab | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 2371 | 1126 | 2549 | 1245 | 178 | 1423 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 2147 | 1196 | 2231 | 951 | 84 | 1035 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 2258 | 1522 | 2691 | 736 | 433 | 1169 | ||
| Average | 2259 ± 112 b | 1281 ± 211 a | 2490 ± 236 a | 977 ± 256 b | 232 ± 181 a | 1209 ± 197 a | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 2860 | 1612 | 2312 | 1248 | −548 | 700 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 2907 | 1406 | 1960 | 1501 | −947 | 554 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 2927 | 1050 | 2168 | 1877 | −759 | 1118 | ||
| Average | 2898 ± 34 a | 1356 ± 284 a | 2147 ± 177 b | 1542 ± 317 a | −751 ± 200 b | 791 ± 293 b |
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). PKV is peak viscosity, HPV is hot paste viscosity, CPV is cool paste viscosity, BDV is breakdown viscosity, SBV is setback viscosity, and CSV is consistence viscosity.
Table 7.
Starch thermal properties of japonica rice in Southern and Northern China.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | To (°C) | Tp (°C) | Tc (°C) | ΔHg (J/g) | ΔHr (J/g) | %R |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 64.2 | 67.7 | 74.6 | 9.6 | 3.5 | 36.5 |
| Akitakomachi | 63.9 | 67.9 | 76.3 | 10.2 | 3.5 | 34.3 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 65.3 | 68.7 | 76.0 | 9.0 | 3.1 | 34.4 | ||
| Average | 64.5 ± 0.7 bc | 68.1 ± 0.5 b | 75.6 ± 0.9 b | 9.6 ± 0.6 b | 3.4 ± 0.2 a | 35.1 ± 1.2 a | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 67.4 | 72.0 | 76.1 | 10.5 | 2.4 | 22.9 |
| Akitakomachi | 67.4 | 71.6 | 77.2 | 10.5 | 2.3 | 21.9 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 67.5 | 71.7 | 76.8 | 10.5 | 2.3 | 21.9 | ||
| Average | 67.4 ± 0.1 a | 71.7 ± 0.2 a | 76.7 ± 0.6 a | 10.5 ± 0.0 b | 2.3 ± 0.1 b | 22.2 ± 0.6 b | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 66.6 | 69.8 | 75.7 | 11.3 | 2.1 | 18.6 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 66.2 | 69.5 | 76.4 | 11.3 | 2.0 | 17.7 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 65.7 | 68.7 | 75.5 | 12.3 | 2.1 | 17.1 | ||
| Average | 66.2 ± 0.5 ab | 69.3 ± 0.6 ab | 75.9 ± 0.5 ab | 11.6 ± 0.6 a | 2.1 ± 0.1 b | 17.8 ± 0.8 c | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 60.10 | 65.20 | 73.20 | 10.40 | 1.8 | 17.3 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 64.80 | 70.29 | 75.56 | 10.70 | 1.7 | 15.9 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 63.00 | 68.36 | 74.20 | 10.50 | 1.9 | 18.1 | ||
| Average | 62.6 ± 2.4 c | 68.0 ± 2.6 b | 74.3 ± 1.2 c | 10.5 ± 0.2 b | 1.8 ± 0.1 b | 17.1 ± 1.1 c |
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). To is onset temperature, Tp is peak temperature, Tc is conclusion temperature, ΔHg is gelatinization enthalpy, ΔHr is retrogradation enthalpy, and R is retrogradation percentage.
Table 8.
Starch granule size of japonica rice between Southern and Northern China.
| Type | Planting Site | Cultivar | Large Particle Content (>10 μm)% | Medium Particle Content (2–10 μm)% | Small Particle Content (<2 μm)% |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NSJRNN | Wuchang | Daohuaxiang 2 | 8.13 | 80.14 | 11.72 |
| Akitakomachi | 7.59 | 77.73 | 14.68 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 8.39 | 75.94 | 15.67 | ||
| Average | 8.04 ± 0.41 a | 77.94 ± 2.11 a | 14.02 ± 2.06 b | ||
| NSJRNS | Yangzhou | Daohuaxiang 2 | 7.86 | 76.28 | 15.86 |
| Akitakomachi | 7.18 | 75.19 | 17.63 | ||
| Longdao 18 | 7.98 | 73.82 | 18.21 | ||
| Average | 7.67 ± 0.43 a | 75.10 ± 1.24 b | 17.23 ± 1.22 a | ||
| NSJRSS | Yangzhou | Huaidao 5 | 7.46 | 78.74 | 13.81 |
| Wuyujing 3 | 6.12 | 78.73 | 15.15 | ||
| Huajing 5 | 6.34 | 80.29 | 13.37 | ||
| Average | 6.64 ± 0.72 b | 79.25 ± 0.90 a | 14.11 ± 0.93 b | ||
| SJRSS | Yangzhou | Nanjing 9108 | 3.20 | 79.95 | 16.85 |
| Nanjing 5718 | 3.91 | 79.88 | 16.20 | ||
| Xudao 9 | 4.13 | 77.64 | 18.23 | ||
| Average | 3.75 ± 0.49 c | 79.16 ± 1.31 a | 17.09 ± 1.04 a |
Data are expressed as the mean ± SD with three cultivars. Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Ma, Z.; Ma, H.; Chen, Z.; Chen, X.; Liu, G.; Hu, Q.; Xu, F.; Wei, H.; Zhang, H. Quality Characteristics of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China and the Effect of Environments on Its Quality. Agronomy 2022, 12, 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112757
AMA Style
Ma Z, Ma H, Chen Z, Chen X, Liu G, Hu Q, Xu F, Wei H, Zhang H. Quality Characteristics of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China and the Effect of Environments on Its Quality. Agronomy. 2022; 12(11):2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112757
Chicago/Turabian StyleMa, Zhongtao, Huizhen Ma, Zhifeng Chen, Xinyi Chen, Guodong Liu, Qun Hu, Fangfu Xu, Haiyan Wei, and Hongcheng Zhang. 2022. "Quality Characteristics of Japonica Rice in Southern and Northern China and the Effect of Environments on Its Quality" Agronomy 12, no. 11: 2757. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112757
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