Polysaccharides—Naturally Occurring Immune Modulators
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharide Classification
3. Extraction of Polysaccharides
3.1. Extraction of β-Glucans
3.2. Extraction of Fucoidan
3.3. Extraction of Glucomannan
3.4. Extraction of Chitosan
3.5. Extraction of Alginate
3.6. Extraction of Hyaluronic acid
3.7. Extraction of Carrageenan
3.8. Extraction of Ulvan
3.9. Extraction of Xylans
4. Immune Modulation
Polysaccharide | Model | Immuno-Modulatory Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Fucoidan | In vitro cell culture, | Activates NF-κB in macrophages (in vitro). Promotes maturation of dendritic cells. Inhibits the polarization of macrophages toward the tumor-promoting M2 phenotype (in vitro). | [142] |
Fucoidan Undariia pinnatifilda | In vitro cell culture—neutrophils. | Delayed spontaneous apoptosis is associated with increased levels of anti-apoptotic protein Mcl-1 and decreased levels of activated caspase -3. Induced activation of neutrophil–secretion of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α–AKT-dependent manner. | [143] |
Fucoidan Macrocystis pyrifera | In vitro cell culture—human neutrophils, mouse NK cells, spleen dendritic cells, and T-cell in vivo mouse model. | Delayed human neutrophil apoptosis. Promoted NK cells activation and cytotoxic activity. Promoted DC maturation. Enhanced T-cell immune response, antigen-specific antibody production, and memory T-cell generation. | [115] |
Fucoidan Fucus vesiculosus | In vivo mouse model. | Upregulation of CD40, CD80, and CD86 expression. Production of IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α in spleen DCs. Influenced INF-γ-producing Th1 and Tc1 cells in an IL-12-dependent manner. | [144] |
Fucoidan Clad siphon navae-caledoniae | In vitro cell culture. Estrogen-positive and estrogen-negative breast cells. | Co-treatments with chemotherapy drugs inhibited cell growth, apoptosis, and cell-cycle modifications. Decrease in phosphorylation of ERK and Akt. Enhanced intracellular ROS levels. Reduced glutathione levels. | [145] |
Fucoidan commercial powder 10 mg/mL | Prospective open-label, single-arm clinical study. | Reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β. | [146] |
Fucoidan Kjellmaniella crassifolia and Undaria pinnatifida | In vitro macrophages RAW264.7. In vivo mouse model. | Enhanced cell proliferation enhanced the secretion of granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Increased the secretion of GM-CSF, TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10 in vivo. | [147] |
Fucoidan Sargassumspecies andFucus vesiculosus | Lewis lung carcinoma cells and melanoma B16 cells. In vivo mouse model. | Decreased the viable number of cancerous cells in a dose–response manner (in vitro). Cytolytic activity of natural killer (NK) cells was enhanced (in vivo). | [148] |
Chitosan | Isolated spleens from oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice. | Increases INF-γ and IL-10 levels. | [149] |
Chitosan | Murine model of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. | Improvement in clinical signs. Reduction in demyelination. INF-γ, IL-17, and TNF-α levels reduced. | [150] |
Chitosan | In vitro cell culture. | Induces production of TNF-α, IL-6, and INF-γ in macrophages. Promote the expression of the genes, including iNOS and TNF-α. | [151] |
Chitosan | Leishmania infection in BALB/c mice. | Increases INF-γ secretion. Reduction in lesion formation. Lower parasite load. | [152] |
Alginate (Commercial) | In vitro cell culture. | Increases TLR-4 expression. Activates NF-ĸB and MAPK pathways. Promote TLR-4-mediated phagocytosis. | [153] |
Xylans Corn cobs | Dextran sodium sulphate (DSS)-induced UC mouse model. | Reversed the imbalance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Rebalanced gut microbiota and reduced Oscillibacter, Ruminococcaceae, Erysipelatoclostridium, and Defluviitaleaceae nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) inhibition. Reduction of inflammatory intestinal damage. | [154] |
Commercial λ-Carrageenan | Melanoma B16-F10 and mammary cancer 4T1 mouse models. | Inhibited tumor growth. Enhanced tumor immune response. Increased the number of tumor-infiltrating M1 macrophages and dendritic cells. Enhanced the secretion of IL17A in spleen. Increased the level of TNF-α in tumor. | [155] |
Ulvan | Labeo rohita | Increase in red blood cells and white blood cells. Increase in superoxide dismutase activity. Increase in respiratory burst activity. Increase in phagocytic activity. Increase in expression IL-1β, TNFα, hepcidin, and IgM cytokines. | [156] |
Hyaluronic acid | Clinical trial Patients of knee osteoarthritis. | Lymphocyte number increased. Reduction of IL-6 and IL-8. | [157] |
In vitro cell culture–murine macrophages. | Nitric oxide production by LPS-stimulated macrophages was decreased. Decreased expression of TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2, and IL-1β in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Increased expression of TGF-β1, IL10, IL-11, and Arg1 genes/anti-inflammatory responses. | [158] | |
Glucomannan Amorphophallus konjac | Cyclophosphamide -induced immunosuppressive mice. | Enhanced the spleen indices. Enhanced the thymus indices. Reduced the proliferation of splenic lymphocytes. Enhanced and regulated humoral immune activity via serum hemolysin. Reduce the capacity of NK cell lethality. Reduction of phagocytic activity of peritoneal macrophages was extremely significantly reduced. Reduction in the production of IL-2, IgG, and TNF-α. | [159] |
Glucomannan Dendrobium officinale | In vitro cell culture. | Stimulate cytokine production (TNF-α and IL-1β). Induced immune activities involving ERK1/2 and NF-κB pathways. | [160] |
Glucomannan Dendrobium officinale | In vitro cell culture. | Promoted the degradation of IκB complexes and activated NF-κB phosphorylation. | [161] |
β-glucans Paramylon E. gracillis | In vivo mouse model (wound healing). | Increased wound contraction. Increased IFN-γ levels. | [162] |
β-glucans Paramylon E. gracillis | In vivo mouse model (influenza infected). | Increased survival rate. Lower virus titer compared to control group. Increased levels of cytokines-IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IL-10, IFN-γ, and TNF-α. | [163] |
β-glucans Lentinan E. gracillis | In vitro cell culture. | Increased levels of IL-6, TNF-α IL-22, IL-8, and IL-10 in THP-1 macrophages. IL-8 and TNF-α reduction after cytokine insult in A549 and BEAS-2B lung cells. | [128] |
5. Natural Polysaccharides with Immune-Modulatory Activity
5.1. β-Glucans
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Beta Glucans
5.2. Fucoidan
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Fucoidan
5.3. Glucomannan
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Glucomannan
5.4. Chitosan
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Chitosan
5.5. Alginate
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Alginate
5.6. Hyaluronic Acid
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Hyaluronic acid
5.7. Carrageenan
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Carrageenan
5.8. Xylans
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Xylans
5.9. Ulvan
Immuno-Modulatory Activity of Ulvan
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Polysaccharide | Species | Extraction Method (EM) and Purification (PFN) | Ref. |
Beta-glucan (C6H10O5)n Up to 3000 kDa | Lentinus edodes Mushroom | EM A water-extracted residue was used to extract the alkaline-soluble crude PSR. The supernatant was then neutralized, dialyzed, precipitated (1:4 v/v) in EtOH, and freeze-dried. PFN Extract diluted in 15 mL of DW and loaded onto a Q-Sepharose Fast Flow strong anion-exchange column (QFF, 4.6 15 cm). At a flow rate of 4 mL/min, the PSR was eluted with 600 mL of DTW and 0.2 and 0.4 mol/L NaCl solutions, sequentially. | [62] |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae | EM Yeast cultured in extract–glucose broth for 48 h, heated for 2 h at 80 °C, centrifuged, and then rinsed with DTW. Samples centrifuged and a five-fold CH3COOH extraction was used to extract β-glucan from lysed yeast pellets. | [63] | |
Xylans (C5H8O4)n Up to 200 kDa | Wheat straw and corn stalks | EM Hot alkali extraction. Raw materials were extracted in sealed with NaOH, and optimal conditions were 100 °C, 72 min, and 7% NaOH (wheat straw); 120 °C, 118 min, and 9% NaOH (corn stalks). | [64] |
Wheat straw | EM Cold alkaline extraction and enzymatic hydrolysis. Wheat straw was incubated with NaOH for 90 min at 40 °C. Solid fraction washed with DTW and dried. Commercial enzyme Ultraflo L, Shearzyme 500 L, and Pentopan mono conc. were tested. Straw was sterilized, and 1 g was incubated at 230 rpm for 54 h, with 200 U of endo-xylanase and 42 mL of buffer. | [65] | |
Hyaluronic acid (C14H21NO11)n Up to 20,000 kDa | Gallus gallus | EM Frozen rooster combs were ground and incubated in acetone for 2 h at 4 °C. Acetone was drained, and dried combs were incubated in 5% CH3COON for 2 h and 10 times. EtOH was added, and the solution purified in chloroform 4 times and then chloroform–amyl alcohol. The solution was dialyzed and precipitated with EtOH. PFN Chloroform and chloroform–amyl alcohol (1:2) were used in the extraction to remove impurities, such as proteins. | [66] |
Recombinant Corynebacterium glutamicum | EM Recombinant C. glutamicum was cultured in fermenter containing 5 g/L of (NH4)2SO4, 5 g/L of urea, 1 g/L of K2HPO4, 1 g/L of KH2PO4, 250 mg/L of MgSO4, and 10 mg/L of CaCl2. The culture was harvested and purified to isolate the hyaluronic acid. PFN First purification with EtOH:C3H8O (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3) at 4 °C or −20 °C and then centrifuged (4000 rpm, 30 min). Pellets dissolved in 3% SDA, and concentration of HA was calculated. (1) Impurities were removed in three steps consisting of SDA/charcoal/centrifugation; (2) TCA 100% was added to the SDA and incubated in an ice bath for 30 min and centrifuged (16,000 rpm, 30 min); (3) solution was dissolved in chloroform–butanol and stirred on a shaker for 30 min. The aqueous phase was collected. | [67] | |
Chitosan (C6H11NO4)n Up to 1000 kDa | Penaeus semisulcatus | EM Dry shells demineralized in 1N HCl at 30 °C for 6 h and deproteinized in 3.5% NaOH at 65 °C for 2 h. Then, shells were decolorized in 0.315% NaCl and obtained chitin deacetylated in 50% NaOH at 100 °C for 5 h to obtain chitosan. | [68] |
Hermetia illucens larvae, pupal exuviae and dead adults | EM Powdered samples were demineralized in 0.5 M formic acid at RT for 1 h, filtered, washed, dried, and then incubated in 2 M NaOH at 80 °C for 2 h for deproteinization. Unbleached and bleached chitin fractions were resuspended in 12 M NaOH and stirred at 100 °C for 4 h, followed by incubation in 1% (v/v) CH3COOH at RT for 48 h. Chitosan was precipitated in pH 8. PFN Realized after deproteinization. Bleached chitin was obtained after treating the samples with 5% H2O2 at 90 °C for 30–60 min. High-purity chitin was obtained (84–86.8%), resulting in higher yields of chitosan. | [69] | |
Carrageenan (C24H36O25S2)n Up to 2000 kDa | Hypnea musciformis | EM Conventional and ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE). Sun-dried algae was hydrated with water and kept at RT for 12 h, followed by depigmentation using methanol:acetone (1:1). The depigmented extract was treated with 3% KOH at 80 °C for 4 h and filtered/washed. Retained was redissolved in water, incubated at 90 °C for 4 h, and then filtered. Extract was precipitated with 95% ethanol, dried, and milled. UAE was performed as conventional until depigmentation then sonicated at 400 and 500 W for 10 and 20 min in an ice bath. | [70] |
Eucheuma cottonii | EM Two extraction methods using Ca(OH)2 and a second with NaOH were performed. Dry algae were mixed with Ca(OH)2 and incubated at 80–110 °C for 2–12 h and filtered; CO2 was then injected into extract until pH reached 7–8, twice, and injected again until solution became clear. Finally, 5% KCl was added, and the solution was filtered, dried, and crushed. In the NaOH method, dry algae were incubated in 10% NaOH/12% KCl at 65 °C for 4 h and washed 3 times. Then, algae were incubated in water for 4 h and boiled at 100 °C for 4 h. After that, 5% KCl solution was used to precipitate carrageenan. | [71] | |
Ulvan RMO (C5H9O4)n XYL (C6H10O7) n UA (C5H8O6) n Up to 200 kDa | Cotesia glomerata and Ulva flexuosa | EM Dry algae extracted by Soxhlet for 7 h with DCM/acetone (1:1). The residual was subjected to a hot extraction with water in a water bath for 7 h at 75–85 °C. Extract was filtrated and liquid concentrated for enzymatic hydrolysis with α-amylase at 20 °C for 30 min. Then, extract was treated with proteinase K at 37 °C for 24 h, and the reaction stopped by heating at 80 °C for 10 min. Ethanol was added and incubated for 24 h in a fridge to precipitate ulvan. PFN Washed consecutively with ethanol, acetone, and diethyl ether. | [72] |
Ulva armoricana | EM Enzyme-assisted extraction. Crushed algae were incubated with water (1:1) and a neutral endo-protease, a mix of neutral and alkaline endo-proteases, a multiple mix of carbohydrates, a mix of endo-1,4-β-xylanase/endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase, cellulase, and exo-β1,3(4)-glucanase enzymes (6% weight/dw, w/dw) at 50 °C for 3 h, followed by denaturation at 90 °C for 15 min. Samples were filtered and then freeze-dried. | [73] | |
Alginate MA (C6H8O6)n GA (C6H8O7)n | Sargassum vulgare | EM Dry algae were soaked in 2% formaldehyde for 24 h, washed with water, and left for 24 h in 0.2M HCl. Second wash with water and extraction with 2% Na2CO3 at 60 °C for 5 h and precipitation of alginate with ethanol. PFN Re-precipitation with EtOH and acetone. | [74] |
Sargassum baccularia, Sargassum binderi, Sargassum siliquosum and Turbinaria conoides | EM Both a cold and hot extraction were performed. In the cold extraction, algae were left in 1% CaCl2 at RT for 18 h, washed with DTW, and incubated with 3% Na2CO3 for 1 h and left for 18 h. Mixture was separated by centrifugation and alginate extracted by adding EtOH/water (1:1). Precipitate was collected and dried. In the hot extraction, algae were treated similarly as in cold method, except the incubation time and temperature were 3 h and 50 °C. PFN Washed with EtOH and dried in air, followed by drying in a vacuum oven. | [75] | |
Fucoidan (C6H10O5S)n Up to 1000 kDa | Sargassum wightii | EM Hot-water extraction and ultrasonication-assisted extraction. | [76] |
Ecklonia maxima, Laminaria pallida and Splachnidium rugosum | EM 3 methods using a hot-water extraction (24 h at 70 °C), acid extraction (0.15 M HCl at 65 °C for 2 h), and salt extraction (incubated with methanol–chloroform overnight, RT) were performed. | [77] | |
Glucomannan GLU (C6H10O5)n MAN (C6H12O6)n | Dendrobium officinale | EM Solid–liquid extraction. Petroleum ether (70 °C/2 h), 80% EtOH (90 °C/2 h), and DTW (100 °C/2 h). PFN Precipitated with EtOH, centrifuged, resuspended in distilled water and deproteinized 5 times (Sevag reagent), washed with ethyl acetate/acetone and EtOH. | [78] |
Dendrobium devonianum | EM Reflux system with methanol for 1 h at 65 °C and microwave-assisted extraction (800 W/80 °C/9 min), precipitation with 95% EtOH, and redissolved in water (60 °C). PFN Ultra-centrifugal filtration. | [79] |
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Murphy, E.J.; Fehrenbach, G.W.; Abidin, I.Z.; Buckley, C.; Montgomery, T.; Pogue, R.; Murray, P.; Major, I.; Rezoagli, E. Polysaccharides—Naturally Occurring Immune Modulators. Polymers 2023, 15, 2373. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102373
Murphy EJ, Fehrenbach GW, Abidin IZ, Buckley C, Montgomery T, Pogue R, Murray P, Major I, Rezoagli E. Polysaccharides—Naturally Occurring Immune Modulators. Polymers. 2023; 15(10):2373. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102373
Chicago/Turabian StyleMurphy, Emma J., Gustavo Waltzer Fehrenbach, Ismin Zainol Abidin, Ciara Buckley, Therese Montgomery, Robert Pogue, Patrick Murray, Ian Major, and Emanuele Rezoagli. 2023. "Polysaccharides—Naturally Occurring Immune Modulators" Polymers 15, no. 10: 2373. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102373