Insights into the Thermo-Mechanical Treatment of Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Potential Filler for Polymer Composites
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Extrusion Grinding of Brewers’ Spent Grain (BSG)
2.3. Characterization Techniques
- total color difference parameter (ΔE*) calculated according to the following Equation (1) [28]:
- chroma (C*ab) calculated according to the Equation (2):
- hue (hab) calculated according to the Equation (3):
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Volatile Organic Compounds Emissions during Extrusion of BSG
Detected Compound | Chemical Formula | Chemical Structure | Boiling Point, °C | Vapor Pressure, Pa | Origin | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrocarbons | ||||||
Hexane | C6H14 | 68 | 17,600 | Polypropylene | [36,37] | |
Benzene | C6H6 | 80 | 10,000 | Styrene-butadiene rubber | [38] | |
Heptane | C7H16 | 98 | 4600 | Polyethylene, Polypropylene | [39] | |
Toluene | C7H8 | 111 | 2800 | Styrene-butadiene rubber, Solvents | [38] | |
p-Xylene | C8H10 | 138 | 1200 | Polyester resins, Styrene-butadiene rubber, Solvents | [38,40] | |
Ethylbenzene | C8H10 | 136 | 930 | Polystyrene | [40] | |
Styrene | C8H8 | 145 | 670 | Polyester resins, Polystyrene, Styrene-butadiene rubber | [38,40] | |
Dodecane | C12H26 | 216 | 17 | Natural rubber, Polyethylene, Polypropylene | [40,41] | |
Naphthalene | C10H8 | 218 | 11 | Poly(vinyl chloride) | [38] | |
Tridecane | C13H28 | 234 | 5 | Polyethylene, Poly(vinyl chloride) | [38] | |
3-Methyltridecane | C14H30 | 249 | 5 | Polyester resins, Polyethylene, Polypropylene | [38,42] | |
Tetradecane | C14H30 | 254 | 2 | Polyester resins, Polyethylene, Polypropylene | [38,42] | |
Pentadecane | C15H32 | 270 | 0.4 | Polyester resins, Polyethylene | [38,42] | |
Hexadecane | C16H34 | 287 | 0.2 | Polyethylene | [38,42] | |
Heptadecane | C17H36 | 302 | 0.03 | Polyester resins, Polyethylene | [38,42] | |
Chlorinated hydrocarbons | ||||||
Methylene chloride | CH2Cl2 | 40 | 57,300 | Polyurethanes, Solvents | [43] | |
Trichloromethane | CHCl3 | 61 | 26,265 | Solvents | [44] | |
Trichloroethylene | C2HCl3 | 87 | 9200 | Solvents | [44] | |
Tetrachloroethylene | C2Cl4 | 121 | 2470 | Polyurethanes, Solvents | [43] | |
Ketones | ||||||
Acetone | C3H6O | 56 | 30,600 | Solvents | [40] | |
Acetophenone | C8H8O | 202 | 45 | Polyethylene, Polystyrene | [42,45] | |
Aldehydes | ||||||
Benzaldehyde | C7H6O | 178 | 133 | Polyester resins | [40] | |
Others | ||||||
Acetic acid | C2H4O2 | 118 | 1520 | Natural rubber, Polyethylene | [40,46] | |
Benzothiazole | C7H5NS | 230 | 2 | Vulcanizing agents | [47] | |
4-tert-Butylphenol | C10H14O | 237 | 1.2 | Poly(vinyl chloride) | [38] |
- H304—May be fatal if swallowed and enters airways;
- H315—Causes skin irritation;
- H319—Causes serious eye irritation;
- H335—May cause respiratory irritation;
- H371—May cause damage to organs;
- H372—Causes damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure.
3.2. Particle Size Distribution
3.3. Color Properties
3.4. Spectroscopic Analysis
4. Conclusions
- the use of energy and water during extrusion should be determined for different parameters of the process, which would enable economic calculations and life-cycle assessment analyses;
- depending on the final application of modified BSG, its impact on the properties of polymer composites or various food products should be evaluated, especially considering the antioxidant activity of melanoidins generated during treatment;
- the possibility of incorporating additional compounds improving the performance of modified BSG in various applications should be evaluated.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Compound | Formula | Chemical Structure | Vapor Pressure, Pa | Boiling Point, °C | Flash Point, °C | NFPA 704 Codes | GHS Pictograms | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F | H | I | |||||||
o-Cymene | C10H14 | 200 | 178 | 50 | 2 | 1 | 0 | ||
m-Cymene | C10H14 | 200 | 175 | 47 | 2 | 1 | 0 | ||
p-Cymene | C10H14 | 200 | 177 | 47 | 2 | 1 | 0 | ||
-Pinene | C10H16 | 633 | 156 | 33 | 3 | 1 | 0 | ||
Camphene | C10H16 | 333 | 160 | 34 | 3 | 2 | 1 | ||
3-Carene | C10H16 | 496 | 170 | 46 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||
Terpinene | C10H16 | 99 | 186 | 37 | 3 | 2 | 2 | ||
Limonene | C10H16 | 190 | 176 | 50 | 2 | 3 | 0 | ||
Camphor | C10H16O | 27 | 209 | 54 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||
2,6-Diisopropylnaphthalene | C16H26 | 0.07 | 279 | 140 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Sample | Color Parameters | AA, % | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L* | a* | b* | ΔE* | R | G | B | Color | Cab* | hab, ° | BI | ||
BSG | 48.17 | 5.11 | 13.04 | - | 124.8 | 110.3 | 93.8 | 14.0 | 68.6 | 10.22 | 36 | |
60 | 54.08 | 4.96 | 13.75 | 5.96 | 139.9 | 124.7 | 106.5 | 14.6 | 70.2 | 9.05 | 49 | |
120 | 58.71 | 4.72 | 13.80 | 10.57 | 151.7 | 136.5 | 117.6 | 14.6 | 71.1 | 8.06 | 54 | |
180 | 52.61 | 5.55 | 14.66 | 4.74 | 137.1 | 120.7 | 101.6 | 15.7 | 69.2 | 10.27 | 71 |
Signal | Sample | Origin | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
60 | 120 | 180 | ||
Wavenumber, cm−1 | ||||
a | 3291 | 3290 | 3290 | O–H, N–H stretching |
b | 2919 | 2919 | 2119 | C–H asymmetric stretching |
c | 2851 | 2850 | 2850 | C–H symmetric stretching |
d | 1633 | 1633 | 1632 | C=O, C=N, C=C stretching |
e | 1517–1532 | 1517–1532 | 1518–1533 | N–H bending, C=C, C–N stretching |
f | 1417–1456 | 1413–1455 | 1412–1454 | C–H bending |
g | 1242–1312 | 1243–1312 | 1247–1312 | O–H bending, C–N, C–O stretching |
h | 1157 | 1156 | 1155 | C–N, C–O stretching |
i | 1032 | 1034 | 1034 | C–N, C–O stretching |
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Hejna, A.; Marć, M.; Kowalkowska-Zedler, D.; Pladzyk, A.; Barczewski, M. Insights into the Thermo-Mechanical Treatment of Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Potential Filler for Polymer Composites. Polymers 2021, 13, 879. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060879
Hejna A, Marć M, Kowalkowska-Zedler D, Pladzyk A, Barczewski M. Insights into the Thermo-Mechanical Treatment of Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Potential Filler for Polymer Composites. Polymers. 2021; 13(6):879. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060879
Chicago/Turabian StyleHejna, Aleksander, Mariusz Marć, Daria Kowalkowska-Zedler, Agnieszka Pladzyk, and Mateusz Barczewski. 2021. "Insights into the Thermo-Mechanical Treatment of Brewers’ Spent Grain as a Potential Filler for Polymer Composites" Polymers 13, no. 6: 879. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060879