Mixed Enzyme Systems for Delignification of Lignocellulosic Biomass
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Precedent
1.2. Impact
1.3. Objective
Lignocellulosic material | Cellulose (%) | Hemicellulose (%) | Lignin (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Hardwood Stems | 40–55 | 24–40 | 18–25 |
Softwood Stems | 45–50 | 25–35 | 25–35 |
Corn Cobs | 45 | 35 | 15 |
Grasses | 25–40 | 35–50 | 10–30 |
Paper | 85–99 | 0 | 0–15 |
Wheat Straw | 30 | 50 | 15 |
Leaves | 15–20 | 80–85 | 0 |
Newspaper | 40–55 | 25–40 | 18–30 |
Switchgrass | 45 | 31 | 12 |
2. Oxidative Enzymes for Lignin Removal
2.1. Laccase and the Mediator System
2.2. MnP
3. Hydrolytic Enzymes for Lignin Removal
3.1. Xylanase
3.2. Aspects of Xylanase Structure Relative to Catalysis and Substrate Binding
Xylanase † | Family | Mass (Da) ‡ | pI ‡ | Entry | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aspergillus niger Xylanase C | 10 | 35,486 | 6.17 | XYNC_ASPNC | [96] |
Cellulomonas fimi CEX/Xylanase B | 10 | 51,219 | 6.19 | GUX_CELFI | [79,90] |
Clostridium thermocellum Xylanase Z | 10 | 92,263 | 5.56 | XYNZ_CLOTH | [79,90] |
Pseudomonas fluorescens Xylanase A | 10 | 64,804 | 6.08 | XYNA_CELJU | [79,90] |
Pseudomonas fluorescens Xylanase B | 10 | 64,363 | 6.37 | XYNB_CELJU | [79,90] |
Streptomyces lividans Xylanase A | 10 | 51,163 | 6.18 | XYNA_STRLI | [79,91] |
Thermoascus aurantiacus Xylanase | 10 | 35,686 | 5.82 | XYNA_THEAU | [90] |
Aspergillus kawachii Xylanase 3 | 11 | 22,627 | 4.07 | XYN3_ASPKW | [96] |
Bacillus agaradhaerens Xylanase | 11 | 23,152 | 8.58 | Q7SIE3_BACAG | [96,103] |
Bacillus circulans Xylanase | 11 | 23,359 | 9.44 | XYNA_BACCI | [79,90,96] |
Bacillus pumilus Xylanase A | 11 | 25,491 | 9.33 | XYNA_BACPU | [90,96] |
Bacillus subtilis Xylanase A | 11 | 23,345 | 9.44 | XYNA_BACSU | [90] |
Clostridium saccharobutylicum Xylanase | 11 | 29,033 | 9.24 | XYNA_CLOSA | [90] |
Fibrobacter succinogenes Xylanase C | 11 | 66,403 | 7.96 | XYNC_FIBSS | [96] |
Penicillium citrinium Xylanase | 11 | 23,480 | 4.69 | Q2PGY1 | [104] |
Thermomyces lanuginosus Xylanase | 11 | 24,356 | 4.77 | XYNA_THELA | [79,96] |
Trichoderma harzianum Xylanase | 11 | 20,703 | 8.71 | XYN_TRIHA | [79] |
Trichoderma reesei Xylanase I | 11 | 24,583 | 5.00 | XYN1_HYPJE | [79,96] |
Trichoderma reesei Xylanase II | 11 | 24,172 | 8.89 | XYN2_HYPJE | [79,96] |
3.3. Susceptibility of Xylanase to Oxidative Inactivation
3.4. Protection of Xylanase via Adsorption to Pulp
4. Mixed Enzyme Systems on Wood, Straw, and Grass (Biopulping)
5. Mixed Enzyme Systems on Pulp
5.1. Sequential Xylanase and Laccase Application
5.2. Simultaneous Xylanase and Laccase Application
5.3. Xylanase and MnP Application
6. Obstacles
Year/Reference | Xylanase | Laccase | Mediator | Sequential or simultaneous? | Reaction conditions | Pulp type | Initial kappa | Bleach sequence following enzyme(s) | End bleach sequence | Delignification (%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dose (per g od pulp) | Source organism or commercial product | Dose (per g od pulp) | Source organism or commercial product | Dose | ID | pH | Buffer | Temperature (°C) | Pulp consistency (%) | Time (h) | Brightness | Kappa | ||||||
1993/[160] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Pine Kraft | 33.7 | P | 35.9 | 21.8 | 35.3 |
2 units | Streptomyces olivochromogenes | - | - | - | - | - | 5.0 | citrate | 45 | 2.5 | 24 | Pine Kraft | 31.8 | P | 55.8 | 16.5 | 48.1 | |
- | - | 6 units | Phlebia radita | none | none | - | 4.5 | dimethyl- succinate | room temperature | 2.5 | 24 | Pine Kraft | 33.7 | P | 38.8 | 22.1 | 34.4 | |
2 units | Streptomyces olivochromogenes | 6 units | Phlebia radita | none | none | Sequential XL | 5.0 then 4.5 | citrate then dimethyl- succinate | 45 then room temperature | 2.5 | 24 then 24 | Pine Kraft | 31.8 | P | 56.5 | 15.8 | 50.3 | |
1997/[7] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | O2 Pine Kraft | 8.6 | EQP | 80.3 | 4.8 | 44.2 |
6 units | Ecopulp X-200 | - | - | - | - | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 10 | 2 | O2 Pine Kraft | 8.6 | QP | 83.2 | 3.4 | 60.5 | |
- | - | 40 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 10 | 2 | O2 Pine Kraft | 8.6 | QP | 87.5 | 2.8 | 67.4 | |
6 units | Ecopulp X-200 | 40 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | Sequential XL | 4.5 | none | 45 | 10 | 2 | O2 Pine Kraft | 8.6 | QP | 88.5 | 2.3 | 73.3 | |
6 units | Ecopulp X-200 | 40 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | Sequential LX | 4.5 | none | 45 | 10 | 2 | O2 Pine Kraft | 8.6 | QP | 87.6 | 2.3 | 73.3 | |
6 units | Ecopulp X-200 | 40 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | Simultaneous | 4.5 | none | 45 | 10 | 2 | O2 Pine Kraft | 8.6 | QP | 88.1 | 2.5 | 70.9 | |
1997/[13] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Pine Kraft | 22.6 | EP | 40.1 | 19.3 | 14.6 |
12 units | Trichoderma reesei | - | - | - | - | - | 5.0 | none | 45 | 5 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 22.6 | EP | 43.9 | 15.7 | 30.5 | |
- | - | 30 units | Trametes versicolor | 1% | HBT | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 10 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 22.6 | EP | 46.4 | 12.8 | 43.4 | |
12 units | Trichoderma reesei | 30 units | Trametes versicolor | 1% | HBT | Sequential XL | 5.0 then 4.5 | none | 45 | 5 then 10 | 2 then 2 | Pine Kraft | 22.6 | EP | 50.8 | 10.4 | 54.0 | |
2002/[8] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 52.1 | 13.5 | 42.5 |
6 units | Trichoderma reesei | - | - | - | - | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 55.4 | 11.4 | 51.5 | |
- | - | 30 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 58.4 | 9.7 | 58.7 | |
- | - | 30 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | NHA | - | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 59.5 | 8.5 | 63.8 | |
6 units | Trichoderma reesei | 30 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | Sequential XL | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 61.1 | 8.1 | 65.5 | |
6 units | Trichoderma reesei | 30 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | NHA | Sequential XL | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 62.2 | 6.9 | 70.6 | |
6 units | Trichoderma reesei | 30 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | HBT | Simultaneous | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 58.3 | 9.4 | 60.0 | |
6 units | Trichoderma reesei | 30 units | Trametes hirsuta | 1% | NHA | Simultaneous | 4.5 | none | 45 | 4 | 2 | Pine Kraft | 23.5 | EP | 61.3 | 7.7 | 67.2 | |
2002/[9] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Wheat Straw | 24.0 | E | nr | 17.3 | 27.9 |
1 unit | Pulpzyme HC | - | - | - | - | - | 7.0 | phosphate | 50 | 5 | 2 | Wheat Straw | 24.0 | E | nr | 15.5 | 35.4 | |
- | - | 25 units | Pycnoporus cinnabarinus | 3% | HBT | - | 5.0 | acetate | 50 | 5 | 4 | Wheat Straw | 24.0 | E | nr | 12.7 | 47.0 | |
1 unit | Pulpzyme HC | 25 units | Pycnoporus cinnabarinus | 3% | HBT | Sequential XL | 7.0 then 5.0 | phosphate then acetate | 50 | 5 | 2 then 4 | Wheat Straw | 24.0 | E | nr | 8.5 | 64.6 | |
2006/[170] | - | - | - | Trametes versicolor | 3% | HBT | - | 4.0 | acetate | 45 | 15 | 5 | Eucalyptus Kraft | 18.2 | EpDoEpD1 (0.15 kappa factor) | 88.0 | nr | nr |
0.75 mg | Pulpzyme-HC | 60 units | Trametes versicolor | 3% | HBT | Sequential XL | 8.0 then 4.0 | none then acetate | 50 then 45 | 10 then 15 | 2 then 5 | Eucalyptus Kraft | 18.2 | EpDoEpD1 (0.12 kappa factor) | 88.0 | nr | nr | |
0.75 mg | Pulpzyme-HC | 60 units | Trametes versicolor | 3% | HBT | Simultaneous | 4.0 | acetate | 45 | 15 | 5 | Eucalyptus Kraft | 18.2 | EpDoEpD1 (0.12 kappa factor) | 88.3 | nr | nr | |
2009/[49] | 3 units | Bacillus sp. | - | - | - | - | - | 7.0 | Tris | 50 | 10 | 2 | O2 Eucalyptus Kraft | 8.4 | none | 53.7 | 8.4 | 0 |
- | - | 10.5 units | NS-51002
(T. villosa) | 1.5% | HBT | - | 4.0 | tartrate | 30 | 5 | 4 | O2 Eucalyptus Kraft | 8.4 | E | 67.0 | 5.0 | 40.5 | |
3 units | Bacillus sp. | 10.5 units | NS-51002
(T. villosa) | 1.5% | HBT | Sequential XL | 7.0 then 4.0 | Tris then tartrate | 50 then 30 | 10 then 5 | 2 then 4 | O2 Eucalyptus Kraft | 8.4 | E | 70.2 | 4.0 | 52.4 | |
2010/[161] | 3 units | Bacillus sp. | - | - | - | - | - | 7.0 | Tris | 50 | 10 | 2 | O2 Eucalyptus Kraft | 8.4 | none | 53.7 | 8.4 | 0 |
- | - | 10.5 units | NS-51002
(T. villosa) | 1.5% | HBT | - | 4.0 | tartrate | 30 | 5 | 4 | O2 Eucalyptus Kraft | 8.4 | none | 59.8 | 7.0 | 16.7 | |
3 units | Bacillus sp. | 10.5 units | NS-51002
(T. villosa) | 1.5% | HBT | Sequential XL | 7.0 then 4.0 | Tris then tartrate | 50 then 30 | 10 then 5 | 2 then 4 | O2 Eucalyptus Kraft | 8.4 | none | 58.8 | 5.2 | 38.1 | |
2010/[16] | 10 units | Penicillium oxalicum | - | - | - | - | - | 9.0 | none | 55 | 10 | 2 | 60:40 Eucalyptus: Poplar | 14.0 | none | 37.0 | 13.4 | 4.3 |
9.6 units | Penicillium oxalicum | 0.4 units | Pleurotus ostreatus | none | none | Simultaneous | 9.0 | none | 55 | 10 | 2 | 60:40 Eucalyptus: Poplar | 14.0 | none | 38.3 | 12.7 | 9.3 | |
7.7 units | Penicillium oxalicum | 0.3 units | Pleurotus ostreatus | none | none | Simultaneous | 9.0 | none | 55 | 10 | 3 | 60:40 Eucalyptus: Poplar | 14.0 | none | 38.3 | 11.1 | 20.7 |
Treatment † prior to Ep stage | Kappa number | Delignification (%) | ISO brightness (%) |
---|---|---|---|
None | 8.0 | - | 59.3 |
Xylanase (no H2O2) | 6.2 | 23 | 65.6 |
MnP (0.0612 mmole H2O2/g pulp) * | 6.6 ‡ | 18 | 62.5‡ |
Xylanase + MnP (simultaneous) (0.0612 mmole H2O2/g pulp) * | 5.2 | 35 | 70.5 |
Xylanase + MnP (simultaneous) ** | 4.3 | 46 | 78.1 |
Xylanase→MnP (sequential) ** | 6.6 | 18 | 64.4 |
MnP→Xylanase (sequential) ** | 6.4 | 20 | 65.9 |
7. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
ABTS | 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) |
Ep | peroxide fortified extraction |
EPR | electron paramagnetic resonance |
ESEM | environmental scanning electron microscopy |
HBT | 1‑hydroxybenzotriazole |
HexA | hexenuronic acid |
HPI | N-hydroxyphthalimide |
kDa | kilodalton |
HWKP | hardwood kraft pulp |
L | laccase treatment stage |
LCC | lignin carbohydrate complex |
LiP | lignin peroxidase |
LMS | laccase mediator system |
MnP | manganese peroxidase |
NHA | N-hydroxyacetanilide |
NMR | nuclear magnetic resonance |
od | oven dried |
ONP | old newspaper pulp |
P | peroxide stage |
TEMPO | 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy, free radical |
TMB | 1,2,3,4-tetramethoxybenzene |
X | xylanase treatment stage |
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Woolridge, E.M. Mixed Enzyme Systems for Delignification of Lignocellulosic Biomass. Catalysts 2014, 4, 1-35. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal4010001
Woolridge EM. Mixed Enzyme Systems for Delignification of Lignocellulosic Biomass. Catalysts. 2014; 4(1):1-35. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal4010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleWoolridge, Elisa M. 2014. "Mixed Enzyme Systems for Delignification of Lignocellulosic Biomass" Catalysts 4, no. 1: 1-35. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal4010001