A Review on Toxic and Harmful Algae in Greek Coastal Waters (E. Mediterranean Sea)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sampling Areas and Data Collection
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Taxonomy and toxic properties of detected HAB species in Greek coastal waters
3.1.1. Class Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)
3.1.1.1. Order Thalassiophysales
3.1.1.2. Order Bacillarialles
3.1.2. Class Dinophyceae (Dinoflagellates)
3.1.2.1. Order Peridiniales
3.1.2.2. Order Prorocentrales
3.1.2.3. Order Dinophysiales
3.1.2.4. Order Gymnodiniales
3.1.2.5. Order Noctilucales
3.1.3. Class Prymnesiophyceae (Haptophytes)
3.1.3.1. Order Phaeocystales
3.1.3.2. Order Prymnesiales
3.1.4. Class Rhaphidophyceae (Chloromonadophytes)
3.1.5. Class Cyanophyceae (Cyanobacteria)
3.1.5.1. Order Chroococales
3.1.5.2. Order Nostocalles
Species | Toxins | Category | Area | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Diatoms | ||||
Amphora coffeaeformis (C. Agardh) Kützing | Domoic acid | (PT) | V | [29] |
Pseudo-nitzschia calliantha, Lundholm, Moestrup et Hasle | Domoic acid | (PT) | V | [29] |
Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima (Cleve) Heiden | Domoic acid | (PT) | I, II, III | [73,77] |
Pseudo-nitschia pseudodelicatissima (Hasle) Hasle | Domoic acid | (PT) | I, II, IV, V | [43,78,79] |
Pseudo-nitzschia pungens (Grunow ex Cleve) Hasle | Domoic acid | (PT) | I, II, III, IV, V | [29,43,73] |
Pseudo-nitzschia seriata (Cleve) H. Peragallo | Domoic acid | (PT) | I, II, III, V | [78,80,81] |
Dinoflagellates | ||||
Alexandrium balechii (Steidinger) Balech | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | II | [82] |
Alexandrium catenella (Whedon et Kofoid) Balech | Saxitoxin, Gonyautoxin, c1-c4 toxins | (PT) | I, II | [82] |
Alexandrium insuetum Balech | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | IV, V | [29,43] |
Alexandrium minutum Halim | Gonyautoxins (1-4) | (PT) | I, II, IV, V | [43,64,83] |
Alexandrium tamarense (Lebour) Balech | Gonyautoxins (1-4) | (PT) | I, II | [82,84] |
Alexandrium taylori Balech | Gonyautoxin-4, Gonyautoxin-6 | (PT) | I, II | [82] |
Amphidinium carterae Hulburt | Maitotoxin | (PT) | IV, V | [29,85] |
Ceratium furca (Ehrenberg) Claparède et Lachmann | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | I, II, III, IV, V | [29,73,78,80] |
Ceratium fusus (Ehrenberg) Dujardin | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | I, II, III, IV, V | [29,73,78,80] |
Ceratium lineatum (Ehrenberg) Cleve | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | IV, V | [29,79] |
Ceratium tripos (Müller) Nitzsch | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | I, II, III, IV, V | [29,73,78,79,80] |
Coolia monotis Meunier | Cooliatoxin | (PT) | I, III, IV | [79,86,87] |
Dinophysis acuminata Claparède et Lachmann | Okadaic acid, Dinophysistoxin-2 | (TX) | I, II, IV | [42,43,71,85] |
Dinophysis acuta Ehrenberg | Okadaic acid, Dinophysistoxin-2 | (PT) | I | [88] |
Dinophysis caudata Saville-Kent | Okadaic acid, Palytoxin | (PT) | I, II, IV, V | [29,42,43] |
Dinophysis fortii Pavillard | Okadaic acid, Dinophysistoxin-1, Palytoxin | (PT) | I | [42] |
Dinophysis rotundata Claparède et Lachmann | Dinophysistoxin-1 | (PT) | I, IV | [42,79] |
Dinophysis sacculus Stein | Okadaic acid | (PT) | I, II, III, IV, V | [29,43,73] |
Dinophysis tripos Gourret | Dinophysistoxin-1 | (PT) | I, II | [82,88] |
Diplopsalis lenticula Bergh | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | I, V | [29,88] |
Gambierdiscus sp. | Ciguatoxin, Maitotoxine | (PT) | III | [87] |
Gymnodinium catenatum Graham | Gonyautoxins (1-4), Saxitoxin | (PT) | I | [84,88] |
Gyrodinium aureolum Hulburt | 1-acyl-3-digalactosyl glycerol, Octadeca- pentaenoic acid | (TX) | I, II | [46,88] |
Gyrodinium impudicum Fraga et Bravo | Unkown toxicity | (PT) | I, IV | [79,84] |
Heterocapsa circularisquama Horiguchi | hemolytic toxin2-a, hemolytic toxin 3-a | (PT) | V | [29] |
Karenia brevis(Gymnodinium breve) (Davis) G. Hansen et Moestrup | Brevetoxin-1, Brevetoxin-2, Brevetoxin-3 | (TX) | I, II, III | [46,70,73,78] |
Karenia mikimotoi (Miyake et Kominami ex Oda) Hansen et Moestrup | Gymnocin-A | (PT) | IV | [79] |
Karlodinium veneficum (Ballantine) J. Larsen | Karlotoxin-1, Karlotoxin-2 | (PT) | V | [29] |
Noctiluca scintillans (Macartney) Kofoid et Swezy | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I | [43] |
Ostreopsis ovata Fukuyo | Putative Palytoxin, Ovatoxin-a | (PT) | I, III, V | [29,86,87] |
Ostreopsis siamensis Schmidt | Putative Palytoxin | (PT) | I, III | [86,87] |
Peridinium quinquecornen Abé | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | V | [29] |
Prorocentrum arcuatum Issel | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | V | [29] |
Prorocentrum borbonicum Ten-Hage, Turquet, Quod, Puiseux-Dao et Couté | Borbotoxins | (PT) | I, III | [87,89] |
Prorocentrum dentatum Stein | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I, II | [46] |
Prorocentrum emarginatum Fukuyo | Unknown toxicity | (PT) | I, III, IV | [79,87,89] |
Prorocentrum levis M.A. Faust, Kibler, Vandersea, P.A. Tester & Litaker | Okadaic acid, Dinophysistoxin-2 | (PT) | I | [89] |
Prorocentrum lima (Ehrenberg) Stein | Okadaic acid, Dinophysistoxin-1, Dinophysistoxin-2 | (PT) | I, II, III, V | [29,73,87,89] |
Prorocentrum micans Ehrenberg | Putative Palytoxin, Ovatoxin-a | (PT) | I, II, III, IV | [73,77,78,79] |
Prorocentrum minimum (Pavillard) Schiller | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I, II, IV, V | [29,43,46] |
Prorocentrum obtusidens Schiller | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I | [42,43] |
Prorocentrum redfeldii Bursa | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I, IV | [43,79] |
Prorocentrum rhathymum Loeblich III, Sherley et Schmidt | Okadaic acid | (PT) | I, III, IV | [85,87,89] |
Protoceratium reticulatum (Claparède et Lachmann) Bütschli | Yessotoxin | (PT) | I | [84] |
Protoperidinium crassipes (Kofoid) Balech | Azaspiracid toxin-1 Azaspiracid toxin-2 Azaspiracid toxin-3 | (PT) | V | [29] |
Scrippsiella trochoidea (Stein) Loeblich | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I, II, III, IV, V | [29,46,73,78,79] |
Prymnesiophytes | ||||
Phaeocystis pouchetii (M.P. Hariot) G. Lagerheim | Polyunsaturated aldehydes | (HB) | I, II, III | [46,62,73] |
Prymnesium parvum N. Carter | Prymnesin-1, Prymnesin-2 | (PT) | I, IV | [85,88] |
Rhaphidophytes | ||||
Chattonella globosa Y. Hara et Chihara | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I, IV | [42,43] |
Chattonella verucolosa Y. Hara et Chihara | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | I, IV | [42,43] |
Cyanobacteria | ||||
Microcystis aeruginosa (Kützing) Kützing | Microcystin-LR | (TX) | II | [62] |
Lyngbya agardhii P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan ex Gomont | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | II | [62] |
Chroococcus gelatinosus Geitler | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | II | [62] |
Synechocystis sallensis Skuja | Unknown toxicity | (HB) | II | [62] |
Trichodesmium erythraeum Ehrenberg | Saxitoxin | (TX) | II | [62] |
3.2. The ecological role of toxic, potentially toxic and bloom forming species in Greek coastal waters
Species | Feeding mechanism | Food type | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Alexandrium catenella | Osmotrophy | Urea, dextrans | [90] |
Alexandrium minutum | Osmotrophy-Phagotrophy | Urea, Cyanobacteria | [91,92] |
Alexandrium tamarense | Osmotrophy-Phagotrophy | Urea, Cyanobacteria, Cryptophytes | [92,93,94] |
Ceratium furca | Phagotrophy | Ciliates | [95] |
Dinophysis acuminata | Phagotrophy | Ciliates | [96] |
Gambierdiscus sp. | Phagotrophy | Unknown pray | [8] |
Gymnodinium catenatum | Phagotrophy | Cyanobacteria | [92] |
Gyrodinium impudicum | Phagotrophy | Cyanobacteria, Algae | [94,97] |
Karenia brevis | Osmotrophy-Phagotrophy | Urea, Cyanobacteria | [92,98] |
Karlodinium veneficum | Osmotrophy-Phagotrophy | Urea, Cryptophytes | [99,100] |
Noctiluca scintillans | Phagotrophy | Algae | [101] |
Ostreopsis ovata | Phagotrophy | Unknown pray | [8] |
Ostreopsis siamensis | Phagotrophy | Unknown pray | [8] |
Prorocentrum micans | Phagotrophy | Cyanobacteria, Algae | [92,94] |
Prorocentrum minimum | Osmotrophy-Phagotrophy | Urea, Cyanobacteria, Algae | [92,99,102] |
Protoperidinium crassipes | Phagotrophy | Algae | [103] |
Scrippsiella trochoidea | Phagotrophy | Cyanobacteria, Algae | [92,94] |
Prymnesium parvum | Phagotrophy | Algae | [104] |
Microcystis aeruginosa | Osmotrophy | Leucine | [69] |
Species | Season/year of max. abundance (Cells.L−1) | Gulf | Impact | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alexandrium insuetum | April 2003 (2.5 × 106 ) | Amvrakikos | Water discoloration | [43] |
May 2004 (4.7 × 105) | ||||
Dinophysis acuminata | Jan. 2000 (8.5 × 104) | Thermaikos | Diarrhetic shellfish toxins | [42,71] |
Feb. 2002 (3.7 × 104) | ||||
March 2003 (2.2 × 103) | ||||
May 2004 (1.1 × 104 ) | ||||
Karenia brevis | Sept. 1977 (1.0 × 107) | Saronikos | Massive fish kill | [70,105] |
Sept. 1978 (5.0 × 107) | ||||
Oct. 1987 (2.7 × 107) | ||||
Noctiluca scintillans | February-March 2000-2004 (>1.0 × 106) | Thermaikos | Water discoloration | [43] |
March 1978 (1.1 × 105) | Kavalas | Water discoloration | [105] | |
Prorocentrum micans | April 1994 (3.7 × 107) | Thermaikos | Water discoloration Water discoloration | [43] |
May 1993 (1.1 × 106) | Saronikos | [46] | ||
Prorocentrum minimum | April 2003 (1.2 × 105) | N. Aegean coastal area, Saronikos, Amvrakikos | Water discoloration | [43] |
April 2003 (1.1 × 105) | ||||
Autumn 2003 (1.0 × 105) | ||||
Prorocentrum obtusidens | Jan. 2000 (1.2 × 106) | Thermaikos | Water discoloration | [43] |
Jan. 2001 (1.2 × 106) | ||||
Prorocentrum redfeldii | Winter 2000 (1.2 × 106) | Thermaikos | Water discoloration | [43] |
Winter 2001 (6.0 × 106) | ||||
Phaeocystis pouchetii | March 1989 (2.5 × 106) | Saronikos | Water discoloration | [46] |
August 1993 (3.5 × 107) | Evoikos | Mucilage | [62] | |
Sept. 1999 (2.7 × 106) | ||||
Chattonella globosa | Spring 2001 (>104) | Thermaikos | Water discoloration | [43] |
Spring 2002 (>104) | ||||
Spring 2003 (>104) | ||||
Chattonella verucolosa | Dec. 1998 (Massive presence) | Amvrakikos | Mass finfish mortality | [43] |
Microcystis aeruginosa | Sept. 1999 (9.9 × 105) | Evoikos | Mucilage | [62] |
Lyngbya agardhii | Sept. 1999 (4.8 × 103 filaments.L−1) | Evoikos | Mucilage | [62] |
Chroococcus gelatinosus | Sept. 1999 (8.2 × 105) | Evoikos | Mucilage | [62] |
Synechocystis sallensis | Sept. 1999 (8.9 × 104) | Evoikos | Mucilage | [62] |
Trichodesmium erythraeum | Sept. 1999 (7.1 × 104 trichomes.L−1) | Evoikos | Mucilage | [62] |
4. Conclusions
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Ignatiades, L.; Gotsis-Skretas, O. A Review on Toxic and Harmful Algae in Greek Coastal Waters (E. Mediterranean Sea). Toxins 2010, 2, 1019-1037. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins2051019
Ignatiades L, Gotsis-Skretas O. A Review on Toxic and Harmful Algae in Greek Coastal Waters (E. Mediterranean Sea). Toxins. 2010; 2(5):1019-1037. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins2051019
Chicago/Turabian StyleIgnatiades, Lydia, and Olympia Gotsis-Skretas. 2010. "A Review on Toxic and Harmful Algae in Greek Coastal Waters (E. Mediterranean Sea)" Toxins 2, no. 5: 1019-1037. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins2051019