1. Introduction
Coffee is second only to water as the world’s most popular beverage and has been consumed for many centuries. It is thought that 2.25 billion cups of coffee are consumed every day worldwide, and this number continues to grow [
1]. Coffee is a complex mixture of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, potassium, magnesium, antioxidants, and caffeine [
2]. Coffee has been suggested to have health benefits in a variety of diseases [
3]. There is limited but emerging evidence that coffee lowers risk of several cancers including colorectal, liver, renal, ovarian, pancreatic, oesophageal, endometrial, and pharyngeal cancer [
3]. Once thought to be related to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension, recent prospective studies and meta-analyses demonstrate a beneficial effect [
4]. Coffee consumption also results in a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes [
5] and metabolic syndrome [
6], and prevents gestational diabetes [
7]. Moderate coffee intake may also reduce the risk of neurodegenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s Disease and Alzheimer’s disease [
8,
9]. Importantly, a recent meta-analysis of 17 prospective studies showed that light to moderate coffee intake was associated with a reduction of all-cause mortality [
10].
There is emerging evidence for a hepatoprotective effect of coffee in a wide range of liver conditions of different severity ranging from elevation of liver enzymes to fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma [
11]. In addition, in both healthy populations and those at risk of liver disease, coffee drinkers have lower aminotransferases and gamma-glutamyl transferase levels compared to their non-coffee drinking counterparts [
12,
13].
Although liver biopsy is still considered the gold standard for the diagnosis and staging of both fibrosis and steatosis, it is expensive, invasive, and associated with a variety of risks and morbidity [
14]. Additionally, with the increasing prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), it is not practical or cost-effective to perform liver biopsies in those suspected of having fibrosis. Therefore, non-invasive methods to assess liver fibrosis and steatosis are gaining in popularity. Transient elastography (TE) using FibroScan
® (EchoSens, Paris, France) is the most widely used and studied method, having considerable accuracy and reproducibility. It is regarded as a surrogate for liver biopsy for grading liver fibrosis in patients with chronic liver disease [
15] and more recently has been used to assess the presence and stage of steatosis in the liver with good accuracy by measuring the degree of ultrasound attenuation, a reading called the controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) [
16].
In the present study, we sought to determine if there is an association between coffee intake and liver stiffness as assessed by transient elastography in patients with NAFLD, chronic hepatitis C (HCV), and chronic hepatitis B (HBV) infections.
4. Discussion
Here we show for the first time an association between coffee intake and liver stiffness assessed by transient elastography in three common liver diseases. Our study found that coffee intake at 2 or more cups per day was associated with lower liver stiffness, a non-invasive marker of liver fibrosis in patients with NAFLD, HBV, and HCV. While this was a retrospective cross-sectional study, it adds to the growing body of literature demonstrating the hepatoprotective benefits of coffee. We found no association between tea consumption and liver stiffness.
Previous studies have demonstrated benefits associated with coffee in patients with HCV and NAFLD [
21,
22], with the strongest evidence of benefit in those with hepatitis C-related liver disease. Khalaf et al. found that caffeine, mostly from coffee, was protective against advanced fibrosis using the FibroSURE test, a serum panel of non-invasive markers of fibrosis [
21]. Coffee intake of 3 or more cups in HCV-infected individuals has been associated with lower rates of disease progression [
23] and with an improved response to peginterferon/ribavirin therapy [
24]. Mechanisms suggested include inhibition of the propagation of HCV virus [
25], a reduction in oxidative damage, serum markers of collagen synthesis, and increased telomere length, which may account for the reduction in disease progression and HCC development [
26].
A protective role for coffee consumption in NAFLD is controversial. Some studies have shown that, in those with NAFLD, coffee consumption may be protective against liver steatosis and fibrosis [
27,
28]. Ultrasound-based studies have shown coffee intake to be inversely associated with the degree of liver steatosis [
27]. Similarly, studies using serum markers of fibrosis and histology have shown coffee intake inversely associated with fibrosis in NAFLD [
22,
29,
30]. Molloy et al. was one of the first to show a correlation with coffee consumption and liver histopathology [
29]. They showed higher coffee consumption in individuals with steatosis compared to those with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), suggesting a protective effect against inflammation. Furthermore, in those with NASH, coffee intake was associated with a significant reduction in risk of advanced fibrosis [
29]. However, a recent prospective study found no protective effect of coffee on the development of liver steatosis [
22]. Moreover, a community-based study of 1223 people found no association between coffee intake and the prevalence of fatty liver [
31]. We also looked at the association between liver steatosis and coffee intake using a non-invasive marker, CAP, which has been reported on our FibroScan
® assessments since early 2013. Consistent with other studies using ultrasonographic methods [
22,
31] we did not show a relationship between coffee consumption and CAP. These results may be due to the patient numbers required to provide sufficient power to determine a significant difference. In addition, many patients with HBV or HCV do not have liver steatosis. HBV and HCV patients in our study had a mean BMI 24 kg/m
2 and 26 kg/m
2, respectively, and therefore were less likely to have steatosis compared to people with NAFLD who had a BMI of 29 kg/m
2. Lending credence to this was the lower CAP readings in HBV and HCV patients. HBV and HCV patients had CAP readings of 210 dB/m and 202 dB/m, respectively, below the proposed cut-off of 232 dB/m for detection of significant steatosis (Grade 1) [
20]. Only the CAP values in NAFLD (261 dB/m) were suggestive of liver steatosis. By measuring the degree of ultrasound attenuation through the liver, the CAP reading provides good sensitivity and specificity for detection of steatosis [
32,
33]. The results are not affected by disease aetiology (HCV, HBV, or NAFLD) [
34]. CAP is non-invasive, reproducible, inexpensive, and can be determined at the same time liver stiffness measurements are obtained.
Our findings demonstrate an association between coffee and liver stiffness in patients with HBV infection. To date, evidence demonstrating the benefits of coffee in HBV-induced liver disease has been limited. Studies have shown mixed results regarding whether coffee reduces the risk of HBV-associated hepatocellular carcinoma [
35,
36]. There has only been one study of hepatitis B patients investigating the association of caffeine consumption with liver fibrosis. In that study, all caffeinated beverages, rather than coffee specifically, were examined and caffeine had no effect on liver stiffness using FibroScan
® [
37].
A strength of our findings is in the diversity of the participant population. Our clinic is representative of most tertiary referral centres across Australia with a wide diversity in ethnicity and socio-economic standing. The use of transient elastography allows us to study all patients referred to our clinic who would have a broad range of disease severities, whereas studies using histology for fibrosis and steatosis may have a selection bias towards those with advanced or more active disease. We did not have access to liver histology to correlate with FibroScan
® findings. Data on liver enzymes such as serum alanine transaminase (ALT) at the time of FibroScan
® would have also been useful. In particular, in HBV infection, a flare with ALT elevation can impact the transient elastography results by artificially raising the LSM [
38,
39]. In HCV, an ALT greater than twice the upper limit of normal can also influence transient elastography results [
40]. It is possible that the lower liver stiffness results we observed in coffee drinkers reflects a combination of less liver inflammation and fibrosis. A systematic review of coffee’s impact on patients with liver disease has shown that coffee improves liver inflammation with a reduction in liver enzymes [
41]. Findings in a rat model of NASH indicates that this may occur through reduced liver concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor alpha and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), with an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 [
42]. Studies involving rodent models of chronic liver disease have proposed mechanisms on how coffee improves liver fibrosis. Animals given coffee had reduced levels of fibrosis and TGF-β, a potent driver of liver fibrosis [
43,
44,
45]. Other fibrogenic cytokines such as platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-β and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) are also reduced in these fibrotic models when administered coffee [
44,
46]. TGF-β, PDGF-β, and CTGF activate hepatic stellate cells (HSC), which express collagen and are involved in liver fibrosis progression. In murine models of fibrosis, coffee reduces HSC activation as demonstrated by a reduction in alpha-smooth muscle actin. These studies suggest that coffee has an effect on profibrotic cytokines and stellate cells with a resultant reduction in fibrosis. In a rat model of NASH, coffee drinking improved both fibrosis and inflammation through the induction of both hepatic endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial chaperones, thereby increasing expression of antioxidant proteins [
47]. Ideally, future studies should include liver biopsy in those with advanced liver disease to correlate histological changes in fibrosis and inflammation with FibroScan results.
The degree to which the beneficial effects of coffee are due to its metabolites or to caffeine is not clear. Caffeine can reduce liver inflammation and fibrosis in animal models through its effect on hepatic stellate cells [
48] and hepatocytes [
49]. Other studies of de-caffeinated coffee suggest a role for factors other than caffeine in hepatoprotection, with animals fed a high fat diet and de-caffeinated coffee having less liver steatosis, fibrosis, and inflammation than the controls [
42]. In addition to caffeine, there are over 1000 different constituents in coffee and the extraction method can alter their concentration. One such potential candidate for beneficial liver-related effects is chlorogenic acid. In animal studies, chlorogenic acid attenuates liver steatosis [
50] and reduces inflammation in NASH [
42]. The concentration of chlorogenic acid varies with different coffee preparation methods and is higher in boiled versus filtered coffee [
51]. Future studies should focus on determining which coffee extraction or preparation methods enhance constituents with the greatest liver-related benefits.