Arguin et al. [17] | Randomized, controlled, parallel study of 5 weeks intervention, 5 weeks stabilization phase, and 1 year follow up. | F Age: Mean 60.5 years BMI: Obese | 22 IER: 12 CER: 10 | 20 IER: 11 CER: 9 | Intervention Intermittent Diet (IER)—2 cycles of 5 weeks of weight maintenance plus 5 weeks of moderate CER OR Continuous energy restriction (CER)—15 weeks of moderate CER | BW, BC, WC, RMB, lipid profile, glucose | Not reported. | ↓† seen in TC and triglycerides in both groups after initial 5 weeks intervention. | At the 1 year follow up (mean ± SD): ↓ 8.5 ± 4.2 kg (IER) ↓ 7.1 ± 4.7 kg (CER) p = 0.73 between groups. |
Ash et al. [18] | Randomised, controlled, parallel-arm study of 3, 12 weeks interventions and 18 months follow up | M Age: >70 years BMI: 25–40 kg/m2 T2DM | 51 | 27 * | Intervention 4200 kJ/day for 4 consecutive days, 3 days ad libitum eating (Food provided on fasting days) OR PPM; Removal of food preparation cues (All food provided) Control group SSM; Prepare and select own foods (Food not provided). | BW, BC, WC, HbA1C, triglycerides | Not reported. | Mean ↓ in energy intake (2369 ± 2793 kJ/day, p < 0.001)), HbA1C (1.0% ± 1.4%, p < 0.001), WC (8.1 ± 46 cm, p < 0.001), % body fat (1.9% ± 1.5%, p < 0.001), and triglyceride levels (0.3 ± 0.6 mmol/L, p = 0.02) post 12 weeks intervention from baseline. No improvements were maintained at the 18 months follow up visit. | Mean Outcome Measures: Baseline: 98.5 ± 12.3 kg* 12 weeks: 92.1 ± 11.4 kg* (p < 0.001 from baseline) 18 months: 96.7 ± 12.1 kg* (NS from baseline) |
Harvie et al. [19] | Randomised, controlled, parallel study of a 6 months intervention | F Age: 30–45 years BMI: 24–40 kg/m2 | 107 IER: 53 CER: 54 | 89 IER: 42 CER: 47 | Intervention 75% ER (~2710 kJ/day) for 2 non consecutive days/week and CER on the other 5 days-IER (Food not provided) OR 25% ER (~6276 kJ/day) for 7 days/week-CER (Food not provided) | BW, insulin sensitivity and metabolic disease risk markers | IER 70% completed 2 VLED days/week at 1 month, 56% at 3 months and 64% at 6 months. CER 71%, 61% and 55% at 1, 3 and 6 months respectively. | Comparable ↓ noted for leptin, CRP, TC, LDL-C, triglycerides, and BP compared to baseline values for each group. IER intervention resulted in greater reductions (p < 0.05) in fasting insulin (2.1 µU·mL−1) and insulin resistance (0.4 µU·mmol−1·L−1) compared to CER (1.1 µUmL−1 and 0.3 µU·mmol−1·L−1) after 6 months. Tests were performed on a non-fasting day a minimum 5 days post weekly VLED treatment. Acute Response of serum markers A subset (15 IER and 9 CER) provided fasting samples the morning after a 2-day VLED which showed acute reductions for the IER group in fasting insulin (−23%), HOMAR (−29%) and TC (−18%). No changes reported in CER group. | At 6 months (mean & range): ↓ 6.4 (↓ 7.9 to ↓4.8 ) kg (IER) ↓ 5.6 (↓6.9 to ↓4.4) kg (CER) p = 0.26 |
Hill et al. [20] | Randomised four-arm parallel study of 12 weeks with follow up at 26 weeks | F Age: ≥18 years Weight: 130%–160% of ideal body weight | 40 IER: 20 CER: 20 | 32 IER: 16 CER: 16 | Intervention Severe ER (2512 kJ/day) on fast days, moderate CER (7536 kJ/day) on alternating days–IER IER plus moderate aerobic training on 5 days/week—IER + EX OR Moderate CER (5024 kJ/day)—CER CER plus moderate aerobic training on 5 days/week—CER + EX | BW, BC, REE, TC, Triglycerides, glucose, insulin | 95% of participants who completed the study. | FM ↓ during the study with no difference between diets (6.1 ± 0.6 vs. 6.0 ± 0.8 kg for constant and alternating dies respectively. REE ↓ by 5% in the group as a whole (p < 0.05), with no diet or exercise effects TC ↓ in the group as a whole (5.30 ± 0.18 to 4.73 ± 0.18 mmol/L, p < 0.05). Subjects in the IER conditions showed greater reductions than did the subjects following CER conditions (5.46 ± 0.26 to 4.68 ± 0.23 mmol/L vs. 5.09 ± 0.23 to 4.81 ± 0.26 mmol/L, p < 0.05) Triglycerides ↓ with weight reduction (1.21 ± 0.11 to 1.02 ± 0.11 mmol/L, p < 0.05) with no diet or exercise effect. Fasting glucose ↑ without any change in fasting insulin, with no diet or exercise effect. | Following the 12-week intervention: Total weight loss during 12 weeks was 7.6 kg (NS between diets). At the six-month follow up (mean ± SEM): ↓ 9.5 ± 2.9 kg (CER) ↓ 7.2 ± 2.7 (IER) NS difference between groups |
Keogh et al. [21] | Parallel, randomized control trial, of 8 weeks with a 12-month follow-up. | F Age: ≥18 years BMI: >27 kg/m2 | 75 IER: 39 CER: 36 | 36 IER: 19 CER: 17 | Intervention Intermittent Energy Restriction (IER) 5500 kJ/day for 1 week followed by 1 week of usual dietary habits OR Continuous Energy Restriction (CER) 5500 kJ/day for the duration of the study | BW, BC, diet quality scores | 24 women (12 from each treatment group) did not adhere to the diet for the 44 weeks between 8 weeks and follow-up. 11 reported continuing their allocated diets for the duration of the study (4 CER, 7 IER). | ↓ in waist and hip circumference over time (p < 0.01) in both groups, no difference between groups. ↑ in Healthy eating index at 12 months in the CER compared to IER (8.4 ± 9.1 vs. −0.3 ± 8.4, p = 0.006). | In completers only: After 8 Weeks (mean ± SD): ↓ 3.2 ± 2.1 kg (CER) ↓ 2.0 ± 1.9 kg (IER) p = 0.06 between groups. 12 months follow-up (mean ± SD): ↓ 4.2 ± 5.6 kg (CER) ↓ 2.1 ± 3.8 kg (IER) p = 0.19 between groups. |
Lantz et al. [22] | Randomised, parallel study of 2 years trial. | MF Age: 18–60 years BMI: >30 kg/m2 | 334 IER: 161 On-Demand: 173 | 117 IER: 57 On-Demand: 60 | VLED (1890 kJ/day) for 16 weeks, VLED for 2 weeks every third month (Intermittent). OR VLED for 16 weeks, VLED on-demand when body weight increased above desired cut-off (On demand). | BW, FFM, BP, glucose, insulin, TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, triglycerides | Not reported. | No significant differences between the groups at baseline or over time. Completers were pooled from both groups to show changes of the following variables: ↓ in systolic (−7 mmHg) and diastolic (−3 mmHG) BP after 1 year † but not after 2 years. TC ↓† after 24 weeks (−0.2 mmol L−1) but not at 1 or 2 years. HDL-C and LDL-C ↓ by 0.2 mmol L−1 and −0.2 mmol L−1 respectively after 100 weeks †. ↓ in glucose, insulin and relative insulin by −0.4 mmol L−1, −7.6 mU L−1, and −2.1 respectively after 48 weeks †. With only serum insulin (−4.9 mU L−1) and relative insulin resistance (−1.1) remaining improved after 100 weeks † | At the end of 2 years (mean ± SD): ↓ 7.0 ± 11.0 kg (Intermittent) ↓ 9.1 ± 9.7 kg (On-demand) NS between groups |
Rossner et al. [23] | Randomised parallel, controlled trial of 18 weeks with follow up at 14 and 26 weeks | MF Age: 21–60 years BMI: >30 kg/m2 | 101 IER: 20 (Trial 1) 29 (Trial 2) Control: 20 (Trial 1) 32 (Trial 2) | 81 IER: 17 (Trial 1) 22 (Trial 2) Control: 16 (Trial 1) 26 (Trial 2) | TRIAL 1—Women only Intervention Three periods of 2 weeks with VLED (1764 kJ/day) separated by 4 weeks of moderate CER (6592 kJ/day) Control Six weeks continuous treatment with VLED (1764 kJ/day) TRIAL 2—Men and Women Intervention Three periods of 2 weeks with VLED (2226 kJ/day) separated by 4 weeks of moderate CER (6592 kJ/day) Control Six weeks continuous treatment with VLED (2226 kJ/day) | BW | Measured via urinary ketone bodies, but results not reported. | - | Mean outcome measures: (mean weight ± SD) TRIAL 1—Women only Intervention Baseline; 106.2 ± 14.2 kg At 26 weeks; 92.1 ± 14.6 kg Control Baseline; 105.6 ± 10.5 kg At 26 weeks; 95.5 ± 11.1 kg TRIAL 2 Intervention Baseline; Men; 135.0 ± 21.6 kg Women; 114.5 ± 13.0 kg At 26 weeks: Men; 108.8 ± 24.4 kg Women; 99.0 ± 16.8 kg Control Baseline: Men; 127.4 ± 9.6 kg Women; 107.7 ± 17.6 kg At 26 weeks: Men; 107.7 ± 12.9 kg Women; 94.9 ± 12.6 kg NS difference between groups. |
Wing et al. [24] | Randomised, two—arm parallel study of 50 weeks + 2 years follow up. | MF BMI: >30 kg/m2 | 93 IER: 45 CER: 48 | 79 IER: 38 CER: 41 | Intervention LED (4200–5040 kJ/day) for the whole 50 weeks (LED) OR 2 × 12 weeks periods of VLED (1680–2100 kJ/day) alternating with the balanced LED (VLED). | BW, glucose, BP, lipids | Not reported. | ↓ in cholesterol for both groups from baseline after 1 year † with greater difference seen in the LCD group (p = 0.058) Significant and comparable ↑in HDL-C and ↓ in triglycerides after 1 year † ↓ in HBA1C levels of 10.6% to 8.3% and 10.2% and 8.8% for the VLED and LED groups respectively (p <0.001). No difference between the groups. ↓ in fasting glucose and insulin levels from baseline after 1 year † for both groups. Changes were comparable for the two treatments At the 2 years follow up levels of fasting glucose, HBA1C and insulin levels were comparable between the two groups. | At 50 weeks follow up (mean ± SD): ↓ 14.2 ± 10.3 kg (VLED) ↓ 10.5 ± 11.6 kg (LED) p = 0.057 |
Wing et al. [25] | Randomised 3-arm parallel study of 20 weeks IER and 14 weeks CER, with follow-up at 20 & 48 weeks. | MF BMI: >30 kg/m2 | 142 IER: 47 (LB) ∏ 47 (SB) Control: 48 | 96 IER: 32 (LB) 33 (SB) Control: 31 | Intervention 7 weeks of moderate CER (4200–6300 kJ/day), 6 weeks break, 7 weeks of moderate CER—Long Break IER (LB) 3 cycles of 3 weeks of moderate CER (4200–6300 kJ/day), 2 weeks break, 5 weeks of moderate CER—Short Break IER (SB) Control 14 weeks moderate CER (4200–6300 kJ/day) plus restriction of 13 specified high-fat foods | | 68% of Long Break IER, 70% Short Break IER, & 64% CER | | Posttreatment (5 months) (mean ± SD): ↓ 8.2 ± 3.7 kg (Control) ↓ 7.0 ± 5.0 kg (LB) ↓ 8.2 ± 6.3 kg (SB) NS significant difference between groups At 48 weeks follow up (mean ± SD): ↓ 7.3 ± 5.1 kg (Control) ↓ 6.5 ± 5.9 kg (LB) ↓ 8.4 ± 8.2 kg (SB) NS difference between groups. |