Overconsumption of Energy and Excessive Discretionary Food Intake Inflates Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Australia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Dietary Intake Data
2.2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data
2.3. Estimation of Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions
2.4. Statistical Analysis
2.5. Modelling of Dietary Pattern Scenarios
- (1)
- Current pattern 1: Best of existing Australian adults’ intake “higher quality, lower GHGe”. This group as a whole had an average daily diet quality score of 59 out of 100, and average GHGe of 8.5 kg CO2e/day.
- (2)
- Current pattern 2: Worst of the existing Australian adults’ intake “lower quality, higher GHGe”. This group as a whole had an average daily diet quality score of 27 out of 100, and average GHGe of 26.3 kg CO2e/day.
- (3)
- Current pattern 3: The average existing Australian adults’ intake. This group as a whole had an average daily diet quality score of 43 out of 100, and average GHGe of 15.3 kg CO2e/day.
- (4)
- Recommended pattern: The recommended dietary intake pattern as per AGHE. This dietary pattern would receive a diet quality score of 100 out of 100. The AGHE recommends number of serves of each core food group and emphasises choosing a variety of foods, but does not prescribe specific foods. For example, in the case of vegetables, it is recommended to eat a variety of types and colours. Greenhouse gas emissions will vary for different age and gender groups depending of serves of food recommended (see Table 3 for recommended serves and GHGe for males and females 19–50 years).
3. Results
3.1. Total Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Energy Intake
3.2. Contributions of Food Groups to Total Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions
3.3. Comparing the Food Intake Adequacy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Three Current Eating Patterns to the Recommended Eating Pattern for Adults Aged 19–50 Years
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix
Food Group | Food Products | GHGe/Purchase Price (kg Co2e/$A) |
---|---|---|
Fruit (fresh and processed) | Dried fruit (excl sun-dried) | 0.48338 |
Kiwi fruit | 0.47974 | |
Fruit juices, single strength or concentrated | 0.44525 | |
Preserved fruit and fruit products | 0.43979 | |
Berries nec—fresh and sun-dried | 0.40945 | |
Grapes sun-dried or for drying | 0.39999 | |
Pears and quinces—fresh and sun-dried | 0.39512 | |
Olives—fresh and sun-dried | 0.38884 | |
Grapes—table | 0.37619 | |
Strawberries | 0.36613 | |
Orchard fruit nec—fresh and sun-dried | 0.34844 | |
Bananas—fresh and sun-dried | 0.34317 | |
Stone fruit—fresh and sun-dried | 0.34280 | |
Citrus fruit—fresh and sun-dried | 0.34152 | |
Apples—fresh and sun-dried | 0.33794 | |
Grapes—wine | 0.33149 | |
Vegetables (fresh and processed) | Lettuces grown undercover | 0.63478 |
Fresh vegetable salads, in plastic containers | 0.55611 | |
Mushroom spawn | 0.53921 | |
Vegetable juices (incl mixtures) (incl tomato); mixtures of vegetable and fruit juices | 0.53887 | |
Farmed seaweed | 0.53246 | |
Tomato pulp, puree and paste | 0.49218 | |
Vegetables, prepared or preserved (incl dried or shelled)(excl frozen); pickles and chutney | 0.44630 | |
Vegetables, frozen | 0.44326 | |
Tomatoes grown undercover | 0.43371 | |
Olives—fresh and sun-dried | 0.38884 | |
Other vegetables, fresh or chilled, grown undercover | 0.38360 | |
Beans, french and runner; peas, green or blue grown outdoors | 0.35533 | |
Onions grown outdoors | 0.34963 | |
Carrots grown outdoors | 0.33958 | |
Lettuces grown outdoors | 0.33944 | |
Cabbages, brussels sprouts, cauliflowers and broccoli grown outdoors | 0.33546 | |
Tomatoes grown outdoors | 0.32920 | |
Mushrooms, fresh or chilled | 0.32215 | |
Potatoes, sweet potatoes and edible roots tubers grown outdoors | 0.30533 | |
Other vegetables (incl. melons), fresh or chilled grown outdoors | 0.30334 | |
Breads and cereals | Cereal grains nec | 2.51001 |
Oilseeds | 2.33390 | |
Lupins (white or yellow) for grain | 1.83608 | |
Legumes for grain nec | 1.73941 | |
Rice, in the husk | 1.59707 | |
Cereal foods (incl breakfast foods) | 0.94889 | |
Rice (husked, semi-milled or wholly milled) | 0.93857 | |
Rice groats, meals and pellets; other worked cereal grains | 0.93798 | |
Malt (excl malt extract) | 0.92090 | |
Pasta | 0.91909 | |
Wheat and other cereal flours (incl self-raising) | 0.91385 | |
Starch of wheat and corn | 0.90673 | |
Mixes and doughs nec (incl custard powder) for preparation of bakers wares (excl frozen) | 0.88976 | |
Flour mill products nec, for human consumption | 0.87563 | |
Malt extract | 0.84356 | |
Wheat bran for human consumption (excl for breakfast food) | 0.82789 | |
Oats, unmilled | 0.67978 | |
Bread and bread rolls | 0.67820 | |
Grain, sorghum | 0.63955 | |
Barley, unmilled | 0.61517 | |
Wheat (incl spelt) and meslin, unmilled | 0.60383 | |
Dried roots, tubers and vegetables; Flour and meal of vegetables | 0.50484 | |
Fresh red meat | Beef | 3.23960 |
Lamb | 3.07132 | |
Pork | 1.45418 | |
Kangaroo | 1.26580 | |
Poultry | Poultry and poultry products (incl canned) | 1.79654 |
Fish & seafood | Rock lobster and crab | 0.97399 |
Crustaceans, molluscs & aquatic invertebrates nec (chilled, frozen, preserved or otherwise prepared) | 0.90976 | |
Frozen whole fish, fish fillets and fish meat; fish loaf, cake, balls and paste; smoked fish; fish fingers; caviar | 0.89430 | |
Oysters and other aquatic invertebrates nec, live, fresh or chilled | 0.88602 | |
Rock lobster and crayfish (incl tails), chilled or frozen (incl boiled and frozen) | 0.88479 | |
Inedible flours, meals, pellets & other products nec of fish, crustaceans & molluscs or other aquatic invertebrates | 0.84087 | |
Fish, canned | 0.80886 | |
Fish and squid (line fishing) | 0.80605 | |
Coral and similar, shells of molluscs; natural animal sponges; algae, fresh or dried | 0.74707 | |
Freshwater fish and aquatic animals nec | 0.74366 | |
Prawns | 0.70514 | |
Fish (trawling or netting) | 0.68971 | |
Farmed fish and fish hatchery products | 0.64590 | |
Farmed prawns and crustaceans nec | 0.50414 | |
Farmed oysters (including Pearl), paua and molluscs nec | 0.39522 | |
Vegetarian Alternatives | Eggs | 0.82685 |
Peanut butter and other nut butters, pastes and purees; | 0.60125 | |
Nuts, roasted | 0.58439 | |
Almonds and macadamias | 0.35695 | |
Edible nuts (excluding Peanuts) nec; Other fruit nec—fresh and sun-dried | 0.34630 | |
Other meats | Edible offals (excl poultry offals) | 1.82509 |
Meat (excl fresh) for human consumption | 1.73576 | |
Other animal products nec | 1.72872 | |
Deer | 0.65689 | |
Mixed meat and vegetables, canned | 0.60675 | |
Dairy products | Cheese and curd | 1.30394 |
Flavoured whole milk drinks | 1.29049 | |
Sour cream, yoghurt and other cultured milk products | 1.28294 | |
Milk and cream, concentrated or sweetened; lactose and lactose syrup; products of natural milk constituents | 1.26744 | |
Milk based food preparations (excluding malt extracts) and dried milk based mixes | 1.26283 | |
Buttermilk | 1.26123 | |
Processed liquid milk (incl whole milk and skim) | 1.19767 | |
Processed meat | Bacon and ham and other dried, salted or smoked pigmeat (incl canned) | 1.84050 |
Smallgoods nec (incl crumbed lamb cutlets, cured meat (canned or uncanned), frankfurters, saveloys and salami) | 1.83591 | |
Alcohol | Beer | 0.46729 |
Wines (incl sparkling) of grapes and other fruit (excl vermouth) | 0.25090 | |
Spirits and fortified wines | 0.23627 | |
Other alcohol | 0.11501 | |
Sugar sweetened beverages | Mineral waters and aerated waters, sweetened or flavoured, bottled | 0.48782 |
Mineral waters and aerated waters, sweetened or flavoured, canned | 0.35982 | |
Sweetened or flavoured bulk pre-mix & post-mix concentrates for mineral & aerated waters; non-alcoholic beverages | 0.35744 | |
Cordials and syrups; powder flavours for soft drinks; concentrated cordial extracts | 0.35320 | |
Dairy based desserts | Ice cream and frozen confections | 1.22533 |
Cream (incl thickened), not concentrated or sweetened | 1.22406 | |
Savoury and sweet biscuits and cakes | Biscuits and biscuit crumbs; rusks; ice cream cones and wafers; unleavened bread | 0.65472 |
Cakes, pastries and crumpets | 0.65356 | |
Biscuit and bread dough (incl frozen) | 0.63559 | |
Bakers’ wares nec (incl pretzels and frozen pizza) (excl bread and pies) | 0.58847 | |
Sweet and savoury pastries and pies | Meat pies | 0.62161 |
Prepared meals (incl TV dinners), of meat or meat offal | 0.61268 | |
Confectionary | Glucose, glucose syrup (incl dextrose) and modified starches (incl dextrins) | 0.89764 |
Liquid refined sugar, golden syrup, artificial honey, starch and sugar products nec | 0.61563 | |
Crystallised, drained and glace fruit, nuts and peel | 0.57841 | |
Icing sugar, molasses (incl treacle) and sugar nec | 0.57003 | |
Other food preparations containing cocoa (excl chocolate confectionery) | 0.53570 | |
Raw and refined sugar in solid form (incl brown sugar) (excl icing sugar) | 0.53402 | |
Chocolate confectionery (excl chocolate coated biscuits and white chocolate) | 0.52437 | |
Chewing gum, white chocolate and other confectionery not containing cocoa | 0.52369 | |
Cocoa beans (roasted); cocoa paste, powder, butter, fat or oil | 0.51854 | |
Jams | 0.48045 | |
Other—stock, salt, dry soups | Edible tallow (excl refined) | 1.59973 |
Butter | 1.25690 | |
Fats and oils derived from milk (incl butter oil); casein | 1.23787 | |
Refined and processed animal or vegetable oils and fats (incl tallow) (excl neatsfoot, wool grease and lanolin) | 1.01827 | |
Restaurants and catering | 0.69551 | |
Fast food and takeaway | 0.64127 | |
Food products nec (incl jelly crystals, meat pastes) | 0.56617 | |
Pasta products, canned | 0.54331 | |
Fried potato and extruded snacks | Corn chips; taco, tortilla and tostada shells | 0.56981 |
Potato crisps and flakes | 0.55735 | |
Beverages | Natural water nec | 0.34758 |
Natural and artificial mineral waters and aerated waters (excl sweetened or flavoured) | 0.23294 | |
Ice | 0.22193 | |
Healthy fats and oils | Crude soya bean, cotton seed, peanut, sunflower, safflower, rape seed, coconut and vegetable oils | 1.01000 |
Margarine | 1.03513 | |
Miscellaneous | Wheat gluten and tapioca | 0.90385 |
Prepared baking powders | 0.86756 | |
Mustard; worcestershire sauce; mayonnaise and salad dressing | 0.58727 | |
Coffee and tea, including substitutes | 0.58032 | |
Yeast and yeast extracts | 0.57738 | |
Spices | 0.57732 | |
Gelatine | 0.57695 | |
Flavouring essences, industrial | 0.56924 | |
Refined salt (cooking and table) | 0.56792 | |
Soup and homogenised food preparations including fruit, vegetables, meat or composites thereof | 0.47864 | |
Fruit and vegetable based health, invalid or baby preparations | 0.47812 | |
Sauces (excl worcestershire/apple); vinegar (excl wine vinegar) | 0.47399 |
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Ingredient Number | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (%) * | 2 (%) | 3 (%) | 4 (%) | 5 (%) | |
Sandwiches, hamburgers, wraps | |||||
Grain + Meat (or meat alternative) (e.g., cheese burger) | Grain (50) | Meat alt (40) | Sauce (5) | Cheese (5) | - |
Grain + Meat (or meat alternative) + Salad (e.g., chicken and salad wrap) | Grain (30) | Meat alt (30) | Veg (30) | Sauce (5) | Cheese (5) |
Mixed dishes where cereal grain main ingredient | |||||
Grain + Meat (or meat alternative) | Grain (65) | Meat alt (25) | Sauce (5) | Oil (5) | - |
Mixed dishes where Meat (or meat alternative) main ingredient | |||||
Meat (or meat alternative) + sauce (e.g., meat curry sauce) | Meat alt (50) | Veg (15) | Sauce (5) | Oil (5) | - |
Meat (or meat alternative) + Grain + Vege (e.g., meat, vegetable stir fry with rice) | Meat alt (30) | Grain (40) | Veg (20) | Sauce (10) | - |
Male (n = 4282) | Female (n = 5059) | Total (n = 9341) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Fruit | 2.9 | 5.0 | 4.0 | 6.6 | 3.5 | 5.9 |
Vegetables | 5.5 | 9.5 | 7.5 | 11.0 | 6.5 | 10.3 |
Breads and cereals | 13.5 | 16.0 | 13.7 | 16.2 | 13.6 | 16.1 |
Fresh meat and alternatives | 34.7 | 29.7 | 33.1 | 29.5 | 33.9 | 29.6 |
Red meat | 18.8 | 27.5 | 16.5 | 26.9 | 17.6 | 27.2 |
Poultry | 10.9 | 20.3 | 11.0 | 20.5 | 11.0 | 20.4 |
Fish | 3.1 | 10.0 | 3.4 | 10.7 | 3.3 | 10.4 |
Vegetarian alt | 1.9 | 7.6 | 2.1 | 8.7 | 2.0 | 8.2 |
Other: Reptiles, offal | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.8 |
Dairy | 9.4 | 11.3 | 11.5 | 12.7 | 10.5 | 12.1 |
Discretionary foods | 31.8 | 25.7 | 27.0 | 23.8 | 29.4 | 24.8 |
Processed meat, burgers, tacos, pizza | 12.6 | 19.5 | 10.0 | 17.8 | 11.3 | 18.7 |
Alcoholic beverages | 7.0 | 12.1 | 4.4 | 10.3 | 5.7 | 11.3 |
Sugar sweetened beverages | 3.4 | 5.9 | 2.8 | 6.0 | 3.1 | 5.9 |
Dairy based desserts, cream, butter | 2.1 | 5.5 | 2.0 | 5.5 | 2.1 | 5.5 |
Savoury and sweet biscuits, cakes | 1.9 | 4.1 | 2.4 | 4.7 | 2.2 | 4.5 |
Sweet and savoury pastries and pies | 1.5 | 4.9 | 1.6 | 5.8 | 1.5 | 5.4 |
Muesli bars, confectionary and choc | 1.5 | 3.1 | 1.9 | 4.0 | 1.7 | 3.6 |
Other—stock, salt, dry soups | 1.1 | 3.8 | 1.4 | 4.1 | 1.2 | 3.9 |
Fried potato and extruded snacks | 0.7 | 2.2 | 0.6 | 2.3 | 0.6 | 2.3 |
Other beverages (non sugar sweetened) | 1.6 | 5.1 | 2.4 | 7.2 | 2.0 | 6.2 |
Healthy fats and oils | 0.4 | 1.4 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 0.5 | 1.6 |
Miscellaneous | 0.3 | 3.0 | 0.2 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 2.3 |
Adults 19–50 years | Higher Quality, Lower GHGe (7508 kJ) | Lower Quality, Higher GHGe (13,195 kJ) | Current Average (10,224 kJ) | Recommended (10,598 kJ) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intake | GHGe | Intake | GHGe | Intake | GHGe | Intake | GHGe | |
(Serves) | (kg CO2e) | (serves) | (kg CO2e) | (Serves) | (kg CO2e) | (Serves) | (kg CO2e) | |
Fruit | 2.3 | 0.8 | 1.9 | 0.7 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 2.0 | 0.7 |
Vege | 3.5 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 0.9 | 3.0 | 1.1 | 5.5 | 2.0 |
Grains | 4.5 | 2.2 | 3.6 | 1.7 | 4.2 | 2.0 | 6.0 | 2.8 |
Meat and alternatives | 1.8 | 6.5 | 3.2 | 11.5 | 2.7 | 9.5 | 2.8 | 9.9 |
Dairy | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 2.5 | 2.9 |
Discretionary | 2.2 | 1.7 | 11.2 | 8.6 | 6.2 | 4.7 | 2.8 | 2.1 |
Total GHGe | 13.9 | 25.2 | 19.7 | 20.4 |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Hendrie, G.A.; Baird, D.; Ridoutt, B.; Hadjikakou, M.; Noakes, M. Overconsumption of Energy and Excessive Discretionary Food Intake Inflates Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Australia. Nutrients 2016, 8, 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8110690
Hendrie GA, Baird D, Ridoutt B, Hadjikakou M, Noakes M. Overconsumption of Energy and Excessive Discretionary Food Intake Inflates Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Australia. Nutrients. 2016; 8(11):690. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8110690
Chicago/Turabian StyleHendrie, Gilly A., Danielle Baird, Brad Ridoutt, Michalis Hadjikakou, and Manny Noakes. 2016. "Overconsumption of Energy and Excessive Discretionary Food Intake Inflates Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Australia" Nutrients 8, no. 11: 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8110690
APA StyleHendrie, G. A., Baird, D., Ridoutt, B., Hadjikakou, M., & Noakes, M. (2016). Overconsumption of Energy and Excessive Discretionary Food Intake Inflates Dietary Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Australia. Nutrients, 8(11), 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8110690