Dietary Patterns in Pregnancy and Effects on Nutrient Intake in the Mid-South: The Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Demographic, Lifestyle and Socioeconomic Assessment
2.3. Dietary Assessment
2.4. Food Pattern Determination
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Description of the Study Participants
3.2. Dietary Patterns
Food Item (Variance Explained) | Healthy (5.8%) | Processed (5.1%) | US Southern (4.4%) |
---|---|---|---|
BREAKFAST ITEMS | |||
Eggs | 0.344 | ||
Breakfast sausage including in sandwiches/biscuits | 0.301 | 0.311 | |
Bacon | 0.367 | ||
Cooked cereals (oatmeal, grits, cream of wheat) | 0.320 | ||
Breakfast or cereal bars | 0.308 | ||
DAIRY | |||
Yogurt, including frozen | 0.434 | ||
Cheese, sliced or spreads | 0.332 | ||
Milk as a beverage | 0.303 | ||
FRUITS | |||
Banana | 0.334 | ||
Apples or pears | 0.355 | ||
Peaches or nectarines, fresh | 0.352 | ||
Canned fruit | 0.374 | ||
Strawberries or other berries in season | 0.383 | ||
VEGETABLES | |||
Broccoli | 0.331 | 0.312 | |
Carrots or mixed vegetables with carrots | 0.471 | ||
Corn | 0.316 | ||
Green beans or green peas | 0.407 | ||
Spinach, cooked | 0.370 | ||
Greens (collards, turnip, or mustard) | 0.517 | ||
Sweet potatoes, yams | 0.360 | ||
Fried potatoes (French fries, home fries, hash browns) | 0.563 | ||
Cole slaw, cabbage, Chinese cabbage | 0.444 | ||
Green salad, lettuce salad | 0.600 | ||
Tomatoes, raw | 0.524 | ||
Other vegetables ( squash, cauliflower, okra, peppers) | 0.547 | ||
Pinto, black or baked beans, chili with beans | 0.304 | ||
Vegetable, vegetable-beef or tomato soup | 0.337 | ||
BREADS | |||
Sandwich buns | 0.469 | ||
Bagels, English muffins, dinner rolls | 0.339 | ||
Cornbread, corn muffins, hush puppies | 0.380 | ||
Sliced bread (white, dark, whole wheat) | 0.310 | ||
CONDIMENTS | |||
Salad dressing, regular or low fat | 0.541 | ||
Mayonnaise, sandwich breads | 0.372 | ||
Ketchup, salsa or chili peppers | 0.450 | ||
Mustard, barbecue sauce, soy sauce, gravy etc. | 0.322 | ||
SWEETS AND SNACKS | |||
Donuts | 0.304 | ||
Cake, snack cakes, cupcakes, Ho-Hos, pastries | 0.437 | ||
Cookies | 0.407 | ||
Chocolate candy | 0.392 | ||
Candy, hard, skittles, starburst etc. | 0.358 | ||
Snack chips like potato chips, tortilla chips, Fritos, Doritos, popcorn | 0.552 | ||
MEAT, FISH, POULTRY, MEAT SUBSTITUTES | |||
Pizza | 0.328 | ||
Meat substitutes (veggie burgers, chicken, hot dogs or lunch meats) | 0.346 | ||
Hamburgers or cheese burgers | 0.504 | ||
Hot dogs or sausage (Polish, Italian or chorizo) | 0.342 | ||
Lunch meats (turkey or regular) | 0.393 | ||
Tacos, burritos, enchiladas, tamales with meat or chicken | 0.306 | ||
Ribs, spareribs | 0.373 | ||
Liver (chicken livers or liverwurst) | 0.319 | ||
Pigs feet, neck bones, oxtails, tongue | 0.419 | ||
Beef or pork dishes (beef stew, pot pie, hamburger helper) | 0.319 | ||
Fried chicken (nuggets, wings or patties) | 0.497 | ||
Roasted or broiled chicken or turkey | 0.354 | ||
Fried fish or fish sandwich | 0.378 | ||
Fish not fried | 0.435 | ||
Peanut Butter | 0.378 | ||
Peanuts, sunflower seeds, or other nuts and seeds | 0.348 | ||
BEVERAGES | |||
100% orange or grapefruit juice | 0.310 | ||
Hi-C, Cranberry Juice Cocktail, Hawaiian Punch, Tang | 0.309 | ||
Kool-aid, lemonade, sports drinks, or fruit flavored drinks | 0.356 | ||
Soft drinks (Coke, Sprite, Orange) regular or diet | 0.377 | ||
Water tap or bottled | 0.320 |
Healthy | Processed | Southern | H-P | H-S | P-S | Mixed | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food Groups | (n = 135) | (n = 98) | (n = 120) | (n = 123) | (n = 98) | (n = 136) | (n = 445) |
BREAKFAST ITEMS | |||||||
Eggs | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.7 | 7.2 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 10 ± 0.7 | 7.9 ± 0.6 | 5.7 ± 0.3 |
Breakfast sausage including in sandwiches/biscuits | 0.8 ± 0.5 | 4.9 ± 0.6 | 5.8 ± 0.5 | 3.0 ± 0.5 | 3.3 ± 0.6 | 9.7 ± 0.5 | 4.0 ± 0.3 |
Bacon | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | 7.4 ± 0.6 | 2.9 ± 0.6 | 5.2 ± 0.6 | 8.5 ± 0.5 | 4.5 ± 0.3 |
Cooked cereals (oatmeal, grits, cream of wheat) | 5.2 ± 0.7 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 7.5 ± 0.7 | 3.1 ± 0.7 | 11.0 ± 0.8 | 5.2 ± 0.7 | 5.1 ± 0.4 |
Breakfast or cereal bars | 6.6 ± 0.6 | 2.4 ± 0.7 | 2.8 ± 0.6 | 7.0 ± 0.6 | 4.9 ± 0.7 | 1.8 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.3 |
DAIRY | |||||||
Yogurt, including frozen | 11.1 ± 0.7 | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 3.5 ± 0.7 | 7.2 ± 0.7 | 9.6 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.7 | 5.6 ± 0.4 |
Cheese, sliced or spreads | 16.3 ± 0.8 | 18.9 ± 1.0 | 10.7 ± 0.9 | 21.2 ± 0.9 | 13.9 ± 1.0 | 15.5 ± 0.8 | 15.5 ± 0.5 |
Milk as a beverage | 16.7 ± 1.0 | 6.9 ± 1.2 | 8.7 ± 1.1 | 14.7 ± 1.1 | 14.7 ± 1.2 | 7.2 ± 1.0 | 12.0 ± 0.6 |
FRUITS | |||||||
Banana | 9.7 ± 0.7 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | 6.2 ± 0.8 | 6.8 ± 0.7 | 11.2 ± 0.8 | 5.4 ± 0.7 | 6.6 ± 0.4 |
Apples or pears | 11.1 ± 0.7 | 3.2 ± 0.8 | 7.4 ± 0.8 | 6.2 ± 0.7 | 13.7 ± 0.8 | 7.2 ± 0.7 | 7.3 ± 0.4 |
Canned fruit | 2.5 ± 0.3 | 5.0 ± 0.8 | 7.9 ± 0.8 | 4.3 ± 0.6 | 8.8 ± 1.0 | 7.7 ± 0.8 | 6.1 ± 0.4 |
Peaches or nectarines, fresh | 2.3 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 5.0 ± 0.5 | 1.9 ± 0.5 | 7.4 ± 0.6 | 3.5 ± 0.5 | 3.2 ± 0.3 |
Strawberries or other berries in season | 9.2 ± 0.6 | 2.8 ± 0.7 | 4.7 ± 0.7 | 6.3 ± 0.7 | 9.8 ± 0.7 | 3.9 ± 0.6 | 5.9 ± 0.3 |
VEGETABLES | |||||||
Broccoli | 4.3 ± 0.5 | 1.9 ± 0.6 | 4.2 ± 0.5 | 3.8 ± 0.5 | 8.6 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.5 | 4.1 ± 0.3 |
Carrots or mixed vegetables with carrots | 6.6 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 2.4 ± 0.5 | 4.5 ± 0.5 | 7.5 ± 0.6 | 2.0 ± 0.5 | 3.7 ± 0.3 |
Corn | 3.4 ± 0.5 | 3.2 ± 0.5 | 4.9 ± 0.5 | 5.0 ± 0.5 | 6.8 ± 0.5 | 4.9 ± 0.5 | 5.0 ± 0.3 |
Green beans or green peas | 5.1 ± 0.5 | 3.6 ± 0.6 | 6.5 ± 0.5 | 5.5 ± 0.5 | 10.2 ± 0.6 | 5.6 ± 0.5 | 6.3 ± 0.3 |
Spinach, cooked | 2.6 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.4 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 1.9 ± 0.3 | 4.5 ± 0.4 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.2 |
Greens (collards, turnip, or mustard) | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 3.3 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.3 | 4.8 ± 0.4 | 3.1 ± 0.3 | 2.3 ± 0.2 |
Sweet potatoes, yams | 1.4 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 1.8 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 3.3 ± 0.3 | 1.4 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.1 |
Fried potatoes (French fries, home fries, hash browns) | 3.0 ± 0.6 | 13.1 ± 0.7 | 4.6 ± 0.6 | 8.9 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.7 | 11.7 ± 0.6 | 7.6 ± 0.3 |
Cole slaw, cabbage, Chinese cabbage | 1.00 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.3 | 2.0 ± 0.3 | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 4.1 ± 0.3 | 1.7 ± 0.2 | 1.6 ± 0.1 |
Green salad, lettuce salad | 13.20 ± 0.6 | 3.9 ± 0.7 | 5.0 ± 0.6 | 10.4 ± 0.6 | 12.1 ± 0.7 | 3.5 ± 0.6 | 7.6 ± 0.3 |
Tomatoes, raw | 10.40 ± 0.6 | 2.6 ± 0.7 | 2.2 ± 0.6 | 9.7 ± 0.6 | 7.5 ± 0.7 | 2.2 ± 0.6 | 5.3 ± 0.3 |
Other vegetables (squash, cauliflower, okra, peppers) | 7.00 ± 0.4 | 0.7 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 5.1 ± 0.5 | 8.4 ± 0.5 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 2.7 ± 0.2 |
Pinto, black or baked beans, chili with beans | 3.30 ± 0.3 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 2.9 ± 0.3 | 2.3 ± 0.3 | 1.6 ± 0.3 | 2.2 ± 0.1 |
Vegetable, vegetable-beef or tomato soup | 2.1 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 2.3 ± 0.3 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 1.5 ± 0.1 |
BREADS | |||||||
Sandwich buns | 3.0 ± 0.5 | 9.4 ± 0.5 | 3.1 ± 0.5 | 7.1 ± 0.5 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 6.6 ± 0.5 | 5.5 ± 0.3 |
Bagels, English muffins, dinner rolls | 4.8 ± 0.4 | 2.2 ± 0.5 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 6.1 ± 0.5 | 3.6 ± 0.5 | 1.9 ± 0.4 | 3.7 ± 0.2 |
Cornbread, corn muffins, hush puppies | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 2.0 ± 0.4 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 2.3 ± 0.4 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 2.5 ± 0.2 |
Sliced bread (white, dark, whole wheat) | 12.6 ± 0.8 | 15.8 ± 1.0 | 8.3 ± 0.9 | 16.2 ± 0.9 | 11.1 ± 1 | 11.2 ± 0.8 | 12.2 ± 0.5 |
CONDIMENTS | |||||||
Salad dressing, regular or low fat | 12.1 ± 0.6 | 4.9 ± 0.7 | 5.2 ± 0.7 | 10.7 ± 0.7 | 11.9 ± 0.7 | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 8.5 ± 0.3 |
Mayonnaise, sandwich breads | 3.3 ± 0.6 | 9.8 ± 0.7 | 3.5 ± 0.7 | 6.9 ± 0.6 | 4 ± 0.7 | 8.7 ± 0.6 | 6.1 ± 0.3 |
Ketchup, salsa or chili peppers | 6.3 ± 0.6 | 11.9 ± 0.7 | 3.4 ± 0.7 | 11 ± 0.6 | 3.7 ± 0.7 | 9 ± 0.6 | 6.7 ± 0.3 |
Mustard, barbecue sauce, soy sauce, gravy, etc. | 6.3 ± 0.6 | 8.5 ± 0.7 | 3.3 ± 0.6 | 9.3 ± 0.6 | 5.5 ± 0.7 | 6.4 ± 0.6 | 6.0 ± 0.3 |
SWEETS AND SNACKS | |||||||
Donuts | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 1.6 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 1.5 ± 0.2 | 1.1 ± 0.1 |
Cake, snack cakes, cupcakes, Ho-Hos, pastries | 1.8 ± 0.5 | 8.2 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 4.6 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 5.3 ± 0.5 | 2.9 ± 0.3 |
Cookies | 3.6 ± 0.5 | 5.5 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 7.1 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.5 | 4.0 ± 0.5 | 3.7 ± 0.3 |
Chocolate candy | 4.2 ± 0.6 | 9.6 ± 0.7 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 8.2 ± 0.6 | 1.9 ± 0.7 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.3 |
Candy, hard, skittles, starburst, etc. | 2.3 ± 0.6 | 6.6 ± 0.6 | 2.4 ± 0.6 | 4.8 ± 0.6 | 2.4 ± 0.6 | 6.1 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.3 |
Snack chips like potato chips, tortilla chips, Fritos, Doritos, popcorn | 6.3 ± 0.7 | 17.9 ± 0.8 | 4.5 ± 0.7 | 12.1 ± 0.7 | 5.2 ± 0.8 | 14.6 ± 0.7 | 8.7 ± 0.4 |
MEAT, FISH, POULTRY, MEAT SUSTITUTES | |||||||
Pizza | 2.7 ± 0.4 | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 2.7 ± 0.4 | 4.6 ± 0.4 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 5.5 ± 0.4 | 3.7 ± 0.2 |
Meat substitutes (veggie burgers, chicken, hot dogs or lunch meats) | 1.7 ± 0.2 | 0.0 ± 0.2 | 0 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | 0.0 ± 0.2 | 0.2 ± 0.1 |
Hamburgers or cheese burgers | 1.7 ± 0.4 | 9.0 ± 0.5 | 3.2 ± 0.4 | 4.6 ± 0.4 | 2 ± 0.5 | 7.9 ± 0.4 | 4.2 ± 0.2 |
Hot dogs or sausage (Polish, Italian or chorizo) | 0.8 ± 0.3 | 3.9 ± 0.4 | 2.6 ± 0.4 | 2.0 ± 0.4 | 1.9 ± 0.4 | 5.8 ± 0.3 | 2.6 ± 0.2 |
Lunch meats (turkey or regular) | 4.8 ± 0.6 | 9.5 ± 0.7 | 4.1 ± 0.6 | 7.8 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.7 | 9.0 ± 0.6 | 6.2 ± 0.3 |
Tacos, burritos, enchiladas, tamales with meat or chicken | 2.2 ± 0.3 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 1.8 ± 0.3 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 1.8 ± 0.3 | 3.4 ± 0.3 | 2.7 ± 0.2 |
Ribs, spareribs | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.1 |
Liver (chicken livers or liverwurst) | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.1 | 0.3 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 |
Pig’s feet, neck bones, oxtails, tongue | 0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.4 ± 0.1 | 0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.8 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 |
Beef or pork dishes (beef stew, pot pie, hamburger helper) | 0.6 ± 0.1 | 1.5 ± 0.2 | 1.8 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 1 ± 0.2 | 2.7 ± 0.2 | 1.3 ± 0.1 |
Fried chicken (nuggets, wings or patties) | 1.2 ± 0.5 | 8.2 ± 0.6 | 4.4 ± 0.5 | 3.9 ± 0.5 | 3.0 ± 0.6 | 9.5 ± 0.5 | 5.1 ± 0.3 |
Roasted or broiled chicken or turkey | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 2.6 ± 0.5 | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 4.5 ± 0.4 | 5.9 ± 0.5 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 3.9 ± 0.2 |
Fried fish or fish sandwich | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 1.1 ± 0.2 | 1.6 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 2.4 ± 0.2 | 1.4 ± 0.1 |
Fish not fried | 2.5 ± 0.2 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 1.6 ± 0.2 | 1.7 ± 0.2 | 0.3 ± 0.2 | 0.8 ± 0.1 |
Peanut Butter | 6.7 ± 0.5 | 2.4 ± 0.6 | 1.9 ± 0.6 | 8.6 ± 0.6 | 4.8 ± 0.6 | 2.0 ± 0.5 | 4.1 ± 0.3 |
Peanuts, sunflower seeds, or other nuts and seeds | 5.5 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 3.7 ± 0.4 | 4.3 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 2.3 ± 0.2 |
BEVERAGES | |||||||
100% orange or grapefruit juice | 5.4 ± 0.8 | 8.3 ± 0.9 | 9.4 ± 0.8 | 8.3 ± 0.8 | 12.5 ± 0.9 | 10.5 ± 0.8 | 9.4 ± 0.4 |
Hi-C, Cranberry Juice Cocktail, Hawaiian Punch, Tang | 0.8 ± 0.6 | 6.6 ± 0.8 | 5.5 ± 0.7 | 2.6 ± 0.7 | 3.3 ± 0.8 | 9.2 ± 0.6 | 4.7 ± 0.4 |
Kool-aid, lemonade, sports drinks, or fruit flavored drinks | 3.4 ± 0.7 | 10.9 ± 0.9 | 5.8 ± 0.8 | 5.6 ± 0.8 | 3.5 ± 0.9 | 12.8 ± 0.7 | 6.7 ± 0.4 |
Soft drinks (Coke, Sprite, Orange) regular or diet | 5.9 ± 0.8 | 17.4 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.8 | 12.6 ± 0.8 | 2.5 ± 0.9 | 11.0 ± 0.8 | 7.5 ± 0.4 |
Water tap or bottled | 29.9 ± 0.6 | 23 ± 0.7 | 25.3 ± 0.7 | 28.8 ± 0.7 | 29 ± 0.7 | 21.6 ± 0.6 | 26.9 ± 0.3 |
Coffee, regular or decaffeinated | 9.7 ± 0.6 | 1.7 ± 0.7 | 0.4 ± 0.7 | 7.4 ± 0.7 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | 0.7 ± 0.6 | 2.0 ± 0.3 |
3.3. Characteristics of Participants
Variable | Healthy | Processed | US Southern | H-P | H-S | P-S | Mixed | p 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | 135 | 98 | 120 | 123 | 98 | 136 | 445 | |
Age, y (mean ± SE) | 30.3 ± 0.38 | 24.1 ± 0.49 | 25.2 ± 0.52 | 28.5 ± 4.95 | 27.7 ± 0.74 | 23.4 ± 0.40 | 26.2 ± 0.24 | <0.0001 |
Height, cm (mean ± SE) | 166 ± 0.64 | 163 ± 0.79 | 163 ± 0.65 | 164 ± 0.67 | 166 ± 0.74 | 163 ± 0.59 | 164 ± 0.24 | 0.0009 |
Pre-pregnancy weight, kg (mean ± SE) | 68.3 ± 1.40 | 75.1 ± 2.35 | 78.1 ± 2.45 | 72.4 ± 1.69 | 77.5 ± 2.10 | 71.9 ± 1.82 | 76.2 ± 0.99 | 0.0005 |
Race, n (%) | ||||||||
Caucasian | 121 (90) | 19 (19) | 8 (7) | 97 (79) | 13 (13) | 3 (2) | 140 (32) | <0.001 |
African American | 7 (5) | 79 (81) | 110 (92) | 24 (20) | 74 (76) | 131 (98) | 294 (66) | |
Other | 7 (5) | 0 (0) | 2 (2) | 2 (2) | 11 (11) | 0 (0) | 9 (2) | |
Ethnicity, n (%) | ||||||||
Hispanic | 3 (2) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) | 4 (3) | 2 (2) | 1 (1) | 15 (3) | 0.2424 |
Non-Hispanic | 132 (98) | 97 (100) | 119 (99) | 117 (97) | 95 (98) | 133 (99) | 425 (97) | |
Pre-pregnancy BMI 2, n (%) | ||||||||
Underweight | 7 (5) | 3 (3) | 5 (4) | 1 (1) | 3 (3) | 9 (7) | 19 (4) | 0.0044 |
Normal | 83 (61) | 38 (39) | 48 (40) | 64 (52) | 37 (38) | 55 (40) | 146 (33) | |
Overweight | 19 (14) | 25 (25) | 17 (14) | 28 (23) | 23 (23) | 36 (26) | 134 (30) | |
Obese | 26 (19) | 32 (33) | 47 (39) | 30 (24) | 35 (36) | 36 (26) | 145 (33) | |
Parity, n (%) | ||||||||
Primipara | 66 (49) | 44 (45) | 57 (48) | 49 (40) | 37 (38) | 47 (65) | 189 (42) | 0.2051 |
Multipara | 69 (51) | 54 (55) | 63 (53) | 74 (60) | 61 (62) | 89 (35) | 256 (58) | |
Education, n (%) | ||||||||
Less than high school | 0 (0) | 16 (16) | 16 (13) | 3 (2) | 7 (7) | 29 (21) | 37 (8) | <0.0001 |
High school or GED | 23 (17) | 55 (56) | 62 (52) | 37 (30) | 41 (42) | 80 (59) | 216 (49) | |
Technical school | 8 (6) | 10 (10) | 12 (10) | 9 (7) | 11 (11) | 17 (13) | 49 (11) | |
College or professional | 102 (77) | 17 (17) | 30 (25) | 74 (60) | 39 (40) | 9 (7) | 143 (32) | |
Marital Status, n (%) | ||||||||
Single | 5 (4) | 53 (54) | 71 (59) | 12 (10) | 39 (40) | 84 (62) | 160 (36) | <0.0001 |
Co-habitation | 127 (95) | 43 (44) | 45 (38) | 110 (90) | 54 (54) | 48 (35) | 272 (61) | |
Do not know | 2 (1) | 2 (2) | 4 (3) | 0 (0) | 4 (4) | 4 (3) | 12 (3) | |
Household size, (mean ± SE) | 3.9 ± 0.1 | 4.7 ± 0.2 | 4.4 ± 1.2 | 4.1 ± 0.1 | 4.2 ± 0.2 | 4.6 ± 0.2 | 4.3 ± 0.1 | 0.0188 |
Insurance, n (%) | ||||||||
Medicaid (Tenncare) | 17 (13) | 69 (70) | 78 (65) | 31 (25) | 50 (51) | 118 (87) | 246 (55) | <0.0001 |
Other | 117 (87) | 28 (29) | 39 (33) | 92 (75) | 44 (45) | 17 (13) | 188 (42) | |
Missing | 1 (0) | 1 (1) | 3 (2) | 0 (0) | 4 (4) | 1 (0) | 11 (3) |
Nutrient | Healthy (n = 135) | Processed (n = 98) | Southern (n = 120) | H-P (n = 123) | H-S (n = 98) | P-S (n = 136) | Mixed (n = 445) | ANCOVA 1 p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy (kcal/day) | 1801 ± 73.4 a | 2958 ± 86.2 b | 1887 ± 77.9 a | 2579 ± 76.9 c | 2347 ± 86.2 c | 3081 ± 73.2 b | 2360 ± 40.5 c | <0.0001 |
Fat (% of E) | 34.3 ± 0.43 | 37.6 ± 0.50 | 36.3 ± 0.46 | 36.6 ± 0.45 | 35.8 ± 0.50 | 37.9 ± 0.43 | 36.3 ± 0.24 | <0.0001 |
Protein (% of E) | 16.5 ± 0.20 | 13.5 ± 0.24 | 14.8 ± 0.21 | 14.9 ± 0.21 | 15.9 ± 0.24 | 14.2 ± 0.20 | 14.9 ± 0.11 | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrate (% of E) | 52.0 ± 0.56 | 50.4 ± 0.66 | 50.9 ± 0.59 | 50.5 ± 0.59 | 50.7 ± 0.66 | 49.2 ± 0.56 | 50.7 ± 0.31 | 0.0351 |
Saturated fat (g) | 30.1 ± 0.50 | 33.6 ± 0.59 | 32.5 ± 0.53 | 32.2 ± 0.51 | 29.9 ± 0.58 | 34.0 ± 0.51 | 32.0 ± 0.27 | <0.0001 |
Omega 3 fatty acids (g) | 2.17 ± 0.05 b | 1.75 ± 0.06 c | 2.09 ± 0.06 b | 2.08 ± 0.05 b | 2.44 ± 0.06 a | 1.82 ± 0.05 c | 2.10 ± 0.03 b | <0.0001 |
Total Sugar (g) | 10.6 ± 0.64 | 21.7 ± 0.75 | 13.2 ± 0.68 | 16.5 ± 0.67 | 8.60 ± 0.75 | 19.4 ± 0.64 | 15.2 ± 0.35 | <0.0001 |
Fiber (g) | 27.4 ± 0.48 | 15.4 ± 0.55 | 20.8 ± 0.50 | 22.3 ± 0.49 | 26.0 ± 0.54 | 15.2 ± 0.48 | 20.5 ± 0.26 | <0.0001 |
Fe (mg) | 19.2 ± 0.32 a,b | 15.6 ± 0.37 d | 17.6 ± 0.34 c | 17.9 ± 0.33 b,c | 19.5 ± 0.37 a | 16.1 ± 0.32 d | 17.7 ± 0.17 c | <0.0001 |
Zn (mg) | 14.3 ± 0.23 | 12.2 ± 0.26 | 12.9 ± 0.24 | 13.3 ± 0.23 | 13.5 ± 0.26 | 12.5 ± 0.23 | 13.2 ± 0.12 | <0.0001 |
Vit B6 (mg) | 2.69 ± 0.05 a | 1.93 ± 0.06 c | 2.37 ± 0.05 b | 2.40 ± 0.05 b | 2.72 ± 0.06 a | 2.03 ± 0.05 c | 2.33 ± 0.03 b | <0.0001 |
Vit B12 (μg) | 6.54 ± 0.20 ab | 5.00 ± 0.23 d | 6.01 ± 0.20 a,b,c | 5.64 ± 0.20 c,d | 6.69 ± 0.22 a | 5.76 ± 0.20 b,c,d | 6.03 ± 0.10 a,b,c | <0.0001 |
Folate (μg) | 777 ± 17.0 | 544 ± 19.7 | 656 ± 17.9 | 715 ± 17.4 | 775 ± 19.4 | 559 ± 17.1 | 671 ± 9.11 | <0.0001 |
Thiamine (mg) | 2.09 ± 0.03 a | 1.62 ± 0.04 d | 1.95 ± 0.03 b | 1.89 ± 0.03 b,c | 2.10 ± 0.04 a | 1.76 ± 0.03 c,d | 1.91 ± 0.02 b | <0.0001 |
Niacin (mg) | 27.4 ± 0.45 a | 23.0 ± 0.53 d | 24.7 ± 0.48 c,d | 25.8 ± 0.46 a,b,c | 27.1 ± 0.52 a,b | 24.0 ± 0.46 c,d | 25.5 ± 0.24 b,c | <0.0001 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 2.77 ± 0.04 a | 2.00 ± 0.05 d | 2.40 ± 0.05 c | 2.46 ± 0.04 b,c | 2.65 ± 0.05 a,b | 2.11 ± 0.04 d | 2.42 ± 0.02 c | <0.0001 |
Total Choline (mg) | 386 ± 7.08 b | 272 ± 8.22 f | 377 ± 7.44 b,c | 334 ± 7.23 d,e | 435 ± 8.08 a | 328 ± 7.11 e | 354 ± 3.79 c,d | <0.0001 |
Free Choline (mg) | 98.3 ± 1.33 a | 63.8 ± 1.54 d | 79.5 ± 1.39 c | 88.2 ± 1.35 b | 94.0 ± 1.51 a,b | 65.9 ± 1.33 d | 81.9 ± 0.71 c | <0.0001 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
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Völgyi, E.; Carroll, K.N.; Hare, M.E.; Ringwald-Smith, K.; Piyathilake, C.; Yoo, W.; Tylavsky, F.A. Dietary Patterns in Pregnancy and Effects on Nutrient Intake in the Mid-South: The Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) Study. Nutrients 2013, 5, 1511-1530. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5051511
Völgyi E, Carroll KN, Hare ME, Ringwald-Smith K, Piyathilake C, Yoo W, Tylavsky FA. Dietary Patterns in Pregnancy and Effects on Nutrient Intake in the Mid-South: The Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) Study. Nutrients. 2013; 5(5):1511-1530. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5051511
Chicago/Turabian StyleVölgyi, Eszter, Kecia N. Carroll, Marion E. Hare, Karen Ringwald-Smith, Chandrika Piyathilake, Wonsuk Yoo, and Frances A. Tylavsky. 2013. "Dietary Patterns in Pregnancy and Effects on Nutrient Intake in the Mid-South: The Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) Study" Nutrients 5, no. 5: 1511-1530. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5051511
APA StyleVölgyi, E., Carroll, K. N., Hare, M. E., Ringwald-Smith, K., Piyathilake, C., Yoo, W., & Tylavsky, F. A. (2013). Dietary Patterns in Pregnancy and Effects on Nutrient Intake in the Mid-South: The Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) Study. Nutrients, 5(5), 1511-1530. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5051511