Dairy Foods and Dairy Protein Consumption Is Inversely Related to Markers of Adiposity in Obese Men and Women
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Assessment of Dietary Intake
2.3. Anthropometry and Body Composition Assessments
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
n | % | |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Male | 353 | 49 |
Female | 367 | 51 |
Mean ± SD | ||
Age (y) | 706 | 51.2 ± 10.4 |
Height (m) | 703 | 1.70 ± 0.1 |
Weight (kg) | 704 | 94.2 ± 18.1 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 718 | 32.4 ± 5.7 |
Waist circumference (cm) | 412 | 105.0 ± 15.8 |
Hip circumference (cm) | 177 | 117.1 ± 16.0 |
Waist/hip ratio | 177 | 0.91 ± 0.09 |
% body fat | 347 | 41.3 ± 8.6 |
Abdominal body fat (g) | 115 | 4630 ± 1418 |
3.2. Dairy Intakes
Mean ± SD (n = 720) | |
---|---|
Energy and macronutrients from total diet and dairy | |
Energy | |
Total from diet (MJ) | 8.4 ± 2.7 |
Total from dairy (MJ) | 1.3 ± 0.6 |
% of energy from dairy | 16 ± 7 |
Protein | |
Total from diet (g) | 103 ± 34 |
% of total energy | 21 ± 3 |
Total from dairy (g) | 19 ± 9 |
% of total energy from dairy protein | 4 ± 2 |
Fat 1 | |
Total from diet (g) | 85 ± 30 |
% of total energy | 37 ± 5 |
Total from dairy (g) | 15 ± 11 |
% of total energy from dairy fat | 7 ± 5 |
Saturated fat | |
Total from diet (g) | 33 ± 13 |
% of total energy | 15 ± 3 |
Total from dairy (g) | 9 ± 7 |
% of total energy from dairy saturated fat | 4 ± 3 |
Monounsaturated fat | |
Total from diet (g) | 31 ± 11 |
Total from dairy (g) | 4 ± 3 |
Polyunsaturated fat | |
Total from diet (g) | 13 ± 6 |
Total from dairy (g) | 0.7 ± 1.2 |
Carbohydrate | |
Total from diet (g) | 211 ± 71 |
% of total energy | 40 ± 6 |
Total from dairy (g) | 25 ± 12 |
Dairy products and calcium | |
Calcium (mg) | 987 ± 326 |
Total dairy (g) | 386 ± 183 |
Milk (g) | |
Whole milk (g) | 63 ± 128 |
Reduced fat milk (g) | 235 ± 200 |
Total Milk (g) | 299 ± 170 |
Cheese (g) 2 | 14 ± 13 |
Yoghurt (g) | 53 ± 66 |
Ice-cream (g) | 13 ± 19 |
Spreads (g) 3 | 6 ± 11 |
Covariate set | Adiposity measure | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total energy, macro- and micronutrients | BMI (kg/m2) | Body fat (%) | Abdominal fat (g) | ||||
B | 95% CI | B | 95% CI | B | 95% CI | ||
Total energy (MJ/day) | Basic | 0.281 ** | 0.120, 0.442 | −0.075 | −0.273, 0.124 | 133 * | 31.7, 234 |
Total protein (g/day) | Basic | 0.050 *** | 0.024, 0.076 | 0.017 | −0.015, 0.050 | −5.28 | −22.0, 11.4 |
Total fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.102 *** | 0.066, 0.138 | 0.118 *** | 0.075, 0.162 | 29.5 * | 7.05, 52.0 |
Total CHO (g/day) | Basic | −0.044 *** | −0.057, −0.031 | −0.038 *** | −0.054, −0.022 | −7.95 | −16.3, 0.418 |
Total saturated fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.190 *** | 0.129, 0.251 | 0.171 *** | 0.096, 0.246 | 50.3 * | 12.1, 88.6 |
Total calcium (g/day) | Basic | −2.82 *** | −4.39, −1.24 | −4.43 *** | −6.33, −2.53 | −1374 ** | −2339, −410 |
Dairy macronutrients a | |||||||
Energy from dairy (MJ/day) | Basic | 0.254 | −0.521, 1.03 | −0.587 | −1.54, 0.367 | −103 | −590, 384 |
Full | NA | NA | |||||
Dairy protein (g/day) | Basic | −0.071 ** | −0.122, −0.021 | −0.117 *** | −0.178, −0.056 | −36.2 * | −67.3, −5.04 |
Full | −0.093 *** | −0.144, −0.042 | −0.128 *** | −0.190, −0.065 | −36.1 * | −68.3, −3.94 | |
Dairy fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.065 ** | 0.027, 0.104 | 0.034 | −0.013, 0.081 | 16.2 | −7.68, 40.1 |
Full | 0.046 * | 0.007, 0.086 | 0.017 | −0.033, 0.066 | 9.30 | −15.4, 34.0 | |
Dairy saturated fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.102 ** | 0.040, 0.165 | 0.052 | −0.025, 0.130 | 26.3 | −13.1, 65.8 |
Full | 0.018 | −0.058, 0.093 | 0.004 | −0.090, 0.099 | −4.80 | −51.9, 42.3 | |
Dairy CHO (g/day) | Basic | −0.052 ** | −0.087, −0.018 | −0.073 ** | −0.115, −0.031 | −17.6 | −39.2, 3.95 |
Full | −0.037 * | −0.073, −0.001 | −0.059 ** | −0.102, −0.016 | −15.8 | −38.3, 6.80 | |
Dairy calcium (g/day) | Basic | −2.19 ** | −3.69, −0.690 | −3.43 *** | −5.26, −1.61 | −1038 * | −1967, −108 |
Full | −4.68 * | −8.29, −1.06 | −0.156 | −4.50, 4.19 | −2041 | −4340, 257 | |
Dairy products(g/day) b | |||||||
Total dairy intake | Basic | −0.003 * | −0.005, 0.000 | −0.004 * | −0.007, −0.001 | −0.821 | −2.28, 0.640 |
Full | NA | NA | NA | ||||
Full fat milk | Basic | 0.003 | −0.001, 0.006 | 0.007 ** | 0.003, 0.011 | 1.93 | −0.051, 3.92 |
Full | 0.000 | −0.004, 0.003 | 0.004 | 0.000, 0.009 | 1.23 | −1.12, 3.58 | |
Reduced fat milk | Basic | −0.003 ** | −0.005, −0.001 | −0.004 ** | −0.006, −0.001 | −0.958 | −2.25, 0.337 |
Full | −0.003 * | −0.005, 0.000 | −0.002 | −0.005, 0.001 | −0.531 | −2.05, 0.991 | |
Total milk | Basic | −0.002 | −0.005, 0.000 | −0.002 | −0.005, 0.001 | −0.260 | −1.82, 1.30 |
Full | −0.001 | −0.004, 0.001 | −0.002 | −0.005, 0.001 | 0.145 | −1.39, 1.68 | |
Cheese c | Basic | 0.000 | −0.034, 0.034 | −0.028 | −0.070, 0.014 | −20.5 | −41.4, 0.512 |
Full | −0.002 | −0.036, 0.032 | −0.020 | −0.061, 0.021 | −17.9 | −38.8, 2.96 | |
Dairy spreads d | Basic | 0.075 *** | 0.037, 0.114 | 0.026 | −0.022, 0.074 | 13.9 | −10.5, 38.3 |
Full | 0.068 ** | 0.029, 0.107 | 0.007 | −0.040, 0.054 | 8.90 | −15.0, 32.8 | |
Yoghurt | Basic | −0.005 | −0.012, 0.001 | −0.016 *** | −0.023, −0.008 | −5.18 * | −9.08, −1.29 |
Full | −0.044 | −0.010, 0.003 | −0.014 *** | −0.022, −0.007 | −4.34 * | −8.28, −0.408 | |
Ice cream | Basic | −0.012 | −.034, 0.009 | −0.005 | −0.032, 0.022 | −1.56 | −15.27, 12.15 |
Full | −0.011 | −0.033, 0.011 | −0.004 | −0.030, 0.022 | −1.38 | −14.6, 11.9 |
Covariate set | Adiposity measure | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total energy, macro- and micronutrients | WC (cm) | HC (cm) | |||
B | 95% CI | B | 95% CI | ||
Total energy (MJ/day) | Basic | 1.00 ** | 0.425, 1.58 | 0.774 | −0.134, 1.68 |
Total protein (g/day) | Basic | 0.092 | −0.002, 0.187 | 0.094 | −0.056,.243 |
Total fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.364 *** | 0.237, 0.491 | 0.470*** | 0.665 |
Total CHO (g/day) | Basic | −0.128 *** | −0.175, −0.081 | −0.178*** | −0.249, −0.107 |
Total saturated fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.597 *** | 0.380, 0.814 | 0.703*** | 0.367, 1.04 |
Total calcium (g/day) | Basic | −12.0 *** | −17.6, −6.47 | −13.8** | −22.5, −5.08 |
Dairy macronutrients a | |||||
Energy from dairy (MJ/day) | Basic | −0.486 | −0.326, 2.29 | −0.552 | −4.93, 3.83 |
Full | NA | NA | |||
Dairy protein (g/day) | Basic | −0.322 *** | −0.501, −0.143 | −0.343 * | −0.624, −0.062 |
Full | −0.372 *** | −0.552, −0.191 | −0.393 ** | −0.677, 0.109 | |
Dairy fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.175 * | 0.039, 0.311 | 0.219 * | 0.005, 0.433 |
Full | 0.101 | −0.040, 0.242 | 0.135 | −0.085, 0.356 | |
Dairy saturated fat (g/day) | Basic | 0.268 * | 0.043, 0.492 | 0.332 | −0.021, 0.685 |
Full | −0.041 | −0.310, 0.227 | 0.034 | −0.388, 0.456 | |
Dairy CHO (g/day) | Basic | −0.206 ** | −0.329, −0.084 | −0.244 * | −0.436, −0.052 |
Full | −0.166 * | −0.294, −0.038 | −0.182 | −0.382, 0.018 | |
Dairy calcium (g/day) | Basic | −9.64 *** | −15.0, −4.31 | −10.3 * | −18.7, −1.95 |
Full | −18.8 ** | −31.7, −5.85 | −12.4 | −32.7, 7.96 | |
Dairy products (g/day) b | |||||
Total dairy intake | Basic | −0.011 ** | −0.019, −0.003 | −0.010 | −0.023, 0.003 |
Full | NA | NA | |||
Full fat milk | Basic | 0.018 ** | 0.007, 0.029 | 0.026 ** | 0.009, 0.044 |
Full | 0.008 | −0.006, 0.021 | 0.017 | −0.004, 0.038 | |
Reduced fat milk | Basic | −0.012 ** | −0.020, −0.005 | −0.014 * | −0.026, −0.002 |
Full | −0.009 * | −0.018, 0.000 | −0.007 | −0.021, 0.006 | |
Total milk | Basic | −0.008 | −0.017, 0.001 | −0.005 | −0.019, 0.009 |
Full | −0.049 | −0.013, 0.004 | −0.002 | −0.016, 0.011 | |
Cheese c | Basic | −0.088 | −0.209, 0.033 | −0.095 | −0.286, 0.096 |
Full | −0.082 | −0.202, 0.039 | −0.083 | −0.268, 0.103 | |
Dairy spreads d | Basic | 0.180 * | 0.042, 0.319 | 0.215 | −0.003, 0.432 |
Full | 0.136 | −0.001, 0.274 | 0.155 | −0.058, 0.367 | |
Yoghurt | Basic | −0.034 ** | −0.057, −0.012 | −0.043 * | −0.078, −0.007 |
Full | −0.028 * | −0.051, −0.006 | −0.036 * | −0.071, −0.001 | |
Ice cream | Basic | −0.035 | −0.114, 0.043 | −0.113 | −0.235, 0.009 |
Full | −0.031 | −0.107, 0.045 | −0.105 | −0.223, 0.013 |
3.3. Dietary Intake and Adiposity Measures
3.3.1. Macronutrients and Adiposity
3.3.2. Dairy Macronutrients and Adiposity
3.3.3. Dairy Foods and Adiposity
3.3.4. Additional Dairy and Adiposity Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions and Implications
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Supplementary Information
Variable | Quartile categories of BMI a | P b | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 n = 179 | 2 n = 180 | 3 n = 180 | 4 n = 179 | ||||||
M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | ||
Age | 53.4 | 12.0 | 51.7 | 8.5 | 51.7 | 9.7 | 48.2 | 10.8 | <0.001 |
Gender (n %) | 0.047 | ||||||||
Male | 87 | 24.7 | 93 | 26.4 | 99 | 28.1 | 73 | 20.7 | |
Female | 92 | 25.1 | 87 | 23.8 | 81 | 22.1 | 106 | 29.0 | |
Body composition variables | |||||||||
Body weight (kg) | 75.8 | 11.0 | 89.1 | 10.4 | 97.5 | 11.7 | 113 | 14.8 | <0.001 |
% body fat | 34.8 | 6.2 | 38.4 | 8.2 | 39.6 | 7.3 | 46.5 | 7.6 | <0.001 |
Abdominal fat (g) | 2781 | 662 | 3684 | 988 | 4370 | 681 | 5537 | 1218 | <0.001 |
Waist Circumference (cm) | 87.6 | 11.2 | 101 | 7.8 | 109 | 8.6 | 121 | 10.7 | <0.001 |
Hip Circumference (cm) | 100 | 6.3 | 112 | 5.4 | 115 | 5.4 | 133 | 12.9 | <0.001 |
Waist/hip ratio | 0.85 | 0.08 | 0.91 | 0.06 | 0.96 | 0.09 | 0.93 | 0.08 | <0.001 |
Dietary variables | |||||||||
Total energy (MJ/day) | 7.8 | 2.5 | 8.5 | 2.7 | 8.5 | 2.7 | 8.8 | 2.6 | 0.006 |
Total protein (g/day) | 95.5 | 31.1 | 103 | 32.9 | 105 | 34.0 | 111 | 36.8 | <0.001 |
Total fat (g/day) | 75.4 | 29.2 | 84.4 | 30.6 | 87.0 | 30.5 | 91.7 | 29.8 | <0.001 |
Total CHO (g/day) | 207 | 68.6 | 214 | 74.7 | 210 | 71.8 | 212 | 70.7 | 0.83 |
Total saturated fat (g/day) | 28.6 | 12.2 | 33.3 | 13.4 | 34.9 | 13.4 | 36.9 | 12.6 | <0.001 |
Total calcium (mg/day) | 988 | 317 | 1021 | 353 | 962 | 297 | 980 | 337 | 0.37 |
Dairy macronutrients | |||||||||
Energy from dairy (MJ/day) | 1.2 | 0.6 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 0.17 |
Dairy protein (g/day) | 19.0 | 8.6 | 19.7 | 9.1 | 18.0 | 7.9 | 18.0 | 8.5 | 0.19 |
Dairy fat (g/day) | 11.9 | 9.1 | 14.8 | 11.8 | 15.8 | 11.5 | 16.7 | 11.6 | <0.001 |
Dairy saturated fat (g/day) | 7.4 | 5.7 | 9.0 | 7.1 | 9.7 | 7.0 | 10.2 | 7.0 | 0.001 |
Dairy CHO (g/day) | 25.7 | 12.5 | 25.7 | 12.6 | 23.4 | 12.2 | 23.4 | 12.1 | 0.10 |
Dairy calcium (g/day) | 632 | 287 | 651 | 308 | 592 | 281 | 596 | 281 | 0.15 |
Dairy products (g/day) | |||||||||
Total dairy intake | 395 | 182 | 405 | 197 | 367 | 174 | 375 | 177 | 0.18 |
Full fat milk | 52.1 | 120 | 68.1 | 141 | 61.0 | 122 | 70.8 | 128 | 0.52 |
Reduced fat milk | 253 | 187 | 249 | 225 | 218 | 191 | 221 | 192 | 0.22 |
Total milk | 305 | 158 | 317 | 195 | 279 | 162 | 292 | 162 | 0.18 |
Cheese c | 12.4 | 9.7 | 14.8 | 12.7 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 14.2 | 12.3 | 0.09 |
Dairy spreads d | 3.8 | 7.9 | 5.7 | 9.6 | 7.3 | 11.7 | 8.3 | 12.2 | <0.001 |
Yoghurt | 59.7 | 67.1 | 54.4 | 67.2 | 51.0 | 68.3 | 47.3 | 62.3 | 0.34 |
Ice cream | 13.7 | 20.5 | 13.6 | 19.4 | 14.1 | 21.2 | 12.6 | 16.3 | 0.90 |
© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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Murphy, K.J.; Crichton, G.E.; Dyer, K.A.; Coates, A.M.; Pettman, T.L.; Milte, C.; Thorp, A.A.; Berry, N.M.; Buckley, J.D.; Noakes, M.; et al. Dairy Foods and Dairy Protein Consumption Is Inversely Related to Markers of Adiposity in Obese Men and Women. Nutrients 2013, 5, 4665-4684. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5114665
Murphy KJ, Crichton GE, Dyer KA, Coates AM, Pettman TL, Milte C, Thorp AA, Berry NM, Buckley JD, Noakes M, et al. Dairy Foods and Dairy Protein Consumption Is Inversely Related to Markers of Adiposity in Obese Men and Women. Nutrients. 2013; 5(11):4665-4684. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5114665
Chicago/Turabian StyleMurphy, Karen J., Georgina E. Crichton, Kathryn A. Dyer, Alison M. Coates, Tahna L. Pettman, Catherine Milte, Alicia A. Thorp, Narelle M. Berry, Jonathan D. Buckley, Manny Noakes, and et al. 2013. "Dairy Foods and Dairy Protein Consumption Is Inversely Related to Markers of Adiposity in Obese Men and Women" Nutrients 5, no. 11: 4665-4684. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5114665
APA StyleMurphy, K. J., Crichton, G. E., Dyer, K. A., Coates, A. M., Pettman, T. L., Milte, C., Thorp, A. A., Berry, N. M., Buckley, J. D., Noakes, M., & Howe, P. R. C. (2013). Dairy Foods and Dairy Protein Consumption Is Inversely Related to Markers of Adiposity in Obese Men and Women. Nutrients, 5(11), 4665-4684. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5114665