The Association between the Macronutrient Content of Maternal Diet and the Adequacy of Micronutrients during Pregnancy in the Women and Their Children’s Health (WATCH) Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Sample
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Australian Food and Nutrient Recommendations
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Characteristic | Low P:NP ratio | Medium P:NP ratio | High P:NP ratio | All women |
---|---|---|---|---|
0.21 (0.19, 0.22) 3 | 0.24 (0.23, 0.25) | 0.28 (0.27, 0.30) | 0.24 (0.21, 0.27) | |
n = 50 | n = 50 | n = 49 | n = 149 | |
Age (year) | 27.8 ± 5.2 4 | 29.6 ± 5.7 | 29.5 ± 5.5 | 29.0 ± 5.5 |
Height (cm) | 165.0 ± 6.4 | 166.1 ± 6.3 | 163.3 ± 6.8 | 164.8 ± 5.6 |
Born in Australia [n (%)] 5 | 49 (98.0) | 45 (90.0) | 45 (91.8) | 139 (93.3) |
Aboriginal, not Torres Strait Islander [n (%)] | 2 (4.0) | 0 (0) | 3 (6.1) | 5 (3.4) |
Married or in de facto relationship [n (%)] | 41 (82.0) | 45 (90.0) | 43 (87.8) | 129 (86.6) |
Education [n (%)] 6 | 28 (56.0) | 43 (86.0) | 40 (81.6) | 111 (74.5) |
Socioeconomic status, IRSAD 7 decile ≤5 [n (%)] 8 | 15 (30.0) | 12 (24.0) | 17 (34.7) | 57 (38.3) |
Smoked during pregnancy [n (%)] | 7 (14.0) | 3 (6.0) | 5 (10.2) | 15 (10.2) |
Prepregnancy weight (kg) | 64.5 (57.0, 79.0) | 67.3 (56.0, 78.5) | 65.0 (60.0, 80.0) | 69.7 ± 17.0 |
Weight gain during pregnancy (kg) | 12.9 ± 6.2 | 14.2 ± 7.8 | 12.6 ± 6.0 | 13.2 ± 6.7 |
Nulliparous [n (%)] | 15 (30.0) | 25 (50.0) | 23 (46.9) | 63 (42.3) |
Preterm delivery before 37 weeks of gestation | 0 (0) | 7 (14.0) | 6 (12.2) | 13 (8.7) |
Infant birthweight (g) | 3608 (3185, 3910) | 3575 (3100, 3980) | 3420 (3049, 3718) | 3500 (3100, 3820) |
Dietary composition | Low P:NP ratio 3 | Medium P:NP ratio | High P:NP ratio | P 4 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.21 (0.19, 0.22) 4 | 0.24 (0.23, 0.25) | 0.28 (0.27, 0.30) | |||||
n = 50 | n = 50 | n = 49 | |||||
Median | IQR | Median | IQR | Median | IQR | ||
Macronutrients | |||||||
Energy (kJ) | 7316.6 | 5994.7–9527.9 | 8158.6 | 6483.2–9624.9 | 7294.7 | 5943.9–8872.4 | |
Protein (%E) | 16.8 a,b | 15.9–17.2 | 18.8 a,c | 18.2–19.4 | 21.4 b,c | 20.7–22.5 | <0.001 a,b,c |
Total fat (%E) | 37.8 | 35.1–40.5 | 37.7 | 35.8–40.7 | 37.7 | 35.3–40.4 | |
Saturated fat (%E) | 16.3 | 14.1–18.9 | 16.2 | 13.9–17.5 | 15.8 | 13.7–18.7 | |
Monounsaturated fat (%E) | 12.5 | 11.7–13.5 | 13.1 | 12.2–14.1 | 13.3 | 12.3–14.6 | |
Polyunsaturated fat (%E) | 5.0 | 4.1–6.7 | 5.2 | 4.1–6.7 | 5.0 | 4.0–5.8 | |
Total carbohydrate (%E) | 43.5 a,b | 41.2–46.0 | 41.2 a,c | 38.7–43.4 | 39.0 b,c | 36.1–41.3 | <0.001 a,b, <0.01 c |
Sugars (%E) | 20.1 a | 18.1–23.4 | 19.6 | 17.7–21.2 | 18.2 a | 15.7–21.0 | <0.01 a |
Starch (%E) | 23.0 a | 20.8–25.0 | 21.5 | 20.4–23.3 | 20.3 a | 18.4–21.7 | <0.001 a |
Fiber (%E) | 3.7 | 3.2–4.5 | 4.3 | 3.7–4.9 | 4.0 | 3.4–4.4 | |
Cholesterol (mg) | 223.0 a | 170.9–319.8 | 300.5 | 210.3–350.2 | 273.1 a | 224.0–372.2 | <0.01 a |
Vitamins | |||||||
Vitamin A (RE μg) | 793.1 | 600.6–1025.1 | 860.8 | 707.8–1119.7 | 741.0 | 585.2–971.9 | |
Retinol (μg) | 415.1 | 315.0–541.1 | 451.6 | 348.3–520.2 | 378.7 | 295.9–501.7 | |
β-carotene (μg) | 2004.2 | 1454.1–2980.2 | 2322.1 | 1663.3–3254.4 | 2198.0 | 1460.1–2642.4 | |
Thiamin (mg) | 1.6 | 1.3–2.0 | 1.7 | 1.3–2.2 | 1.5 | 1.2–1.9 | |
Riboflavin (mg) | 2.4 | 1.9–3.1 | 2.6 | 2.1–3.6 | 2.5 | 2.1–3.2 | |
Niacin Equivalents (mg) | 33.9 | 26.5–44.2 | 41.8 | 32.4–48.0 | 37.9 | 32.2–49.4 | |
Niacin (mg) | 19.6 | 15.0–26.2 | 23.1 | 18.1–28.0 | 21.0 | 16.7–27.4 | |
Folate (µg) | 279.7 | 205.2–356.0 | 298.1 | 243.2–355.4 | 244.4 | 205.3–350.0 | |
Vitamin C (mg) | 161.9 | 90.9–207.2 | 153.2 a | 116.5–190.3 | 105.0 a | 81.4–166.9 | <0.01 a |
Vitamin E (mg) | 6.5 | 4.6–8.3 | 6.7 a | 5.5–8.2 | 5.3 a | 4.3–7.2 | <0.01 a |
Minerals | |||||||
Calcium (mg) | 867.2 a,b | 715.9–1006.9 | 965.6 a | 811.5–1305.6 | 1067.8 b | 826.0–1279.6 | <0.01 a,b |
Iron (mg) | 11.9 | 8.9–15.2 | 12.9 | 10.1–16.3 | 11.7 | 9.6–15.4 | |
Magnesium (mg) | 259.6 | 202.2–322.0 | 291.5 | 240.9–361.0 | 272.2 | 218.2–356.0 | |
Phosphorus (mg) | 1299.5 | 1093.0–1626.9 | 1588.8 | 1277.0–1911.0 | 1548.5 | 1254.4–1905.2 | |
Potassium (mg) | 2586. | 2026.8–3200.1 | 3010.9 | 2612.6–3505.5 | 2848.8 | 2204.8–3491.2 | |
Sodium (mg) | 2255.9 | 1805.1–2868.3 | 2566.9 | 2091.6–3184.1 | 2404.6 | 2072.6–2941.5 | |
Zinc (mg) | 9.2 a,b | 7.6–12.7 | 12.2 a | 9.3–14.3 | 11.1 b | 9.9–14.8 | <0.01 a,b |
Food group servings 3 | Recommended food group servings | Low P:NP ratio | Medium P:NP ratio | High P:NP ratio | P 5 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.21 (0.19, 0.22) 4 | 0.24 (0.23, 0.25) | 0.28 (0.27, 0.30) | ||||||
n = 50 | n = 50 | n = 49 | ||||||
Median | IQR | Median | IQR | Median | IQR | |||
Breads/cereals (servings/day) | 4–6 | 2.7 | 2.0–3.2 | 2.6 | 2.2–3.4 | 2.5 | 1.9–2.9 | |
Fruit (servings/day) | 4 | 2.6 | 1.4–3.3 | 2.7 a | 2.0–3.5 | 1.7 a | 1.0–2.8 | <0.01 a |
Vegetables (servings/day) | 5–6 | 1.8 a | 1.2–2.5 | 2.4 a | 1.8–3.0 | 2.3 | 1.9–2.7 | <0.01 a |
Dairy (servings/day) | 2 | 1.8 a,b | 1.3–2.2 | 2.0 a | 1.7–2.6 | 2.1 b | 1.7–2.8 | <0.01 a,b |
Meat and alternatives (servings/day) | 1.5 | 1.4 a | 0.9–1.8 | 1.6 | 1.4–2.0 | 2.0 a | 1.5–2.5 | <0.001 a |
Extras (servings/day) | 0–2.5 | 4.6 a | 3.6–5.8 | 4.3 | 3.1–5.6 | 3.6 a | 2.6–5.5 | <0.01 a |
Sweet (servings/day) | 1.5 a | 1.1–2.1 | 1.2 | 0.7–1.8 | 1.2 a | 0.6–2.0 | <0.01 a | |
Savory (servings/day) | 2.6 | 2.0–3.4 | 2.6 | 1.9–3.6 | 2.1 | 1.8–2.9 | ||
Alcohol (servings/day) | 0.02 | 0.0–0.05 | 0.03 | 0.0–0.11 | 0.03 | 0.0–0.18 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
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Blumfield, M.; Hure, A.; MacDonald-Wicks, L.; Smith, R.; Simpson, S.; Raubenheimer, D.; Collins, C. The Association between the Macronutrient Content of Maternal Diet and the Adequacy of Micronutrients during Pregnancy in the Women and Their Children’s Health (WATCH) Study. Nutrients 2012, 4, 1958-1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4121958
Blumfield M, Hure A, MacDonald-Wicks L, Smith R, Simpson S, Raubenheimer D, Collins C. The Association between the Macronutrient Content of Maternal Diet and the Adequacy of Micronutrients during Pregnancy in the Women and Their Children’s Health (WATCH) Study. Nutrients. 2012; 4(12):1958-1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4121958
Chicago/Turabian StyleBlumfield, Michelle, Alexis Hure, Lesley MacDonald-Wicks, Roger Smith, Stephen Simpson, David Raubenheimer, and Clare Collins. 2012. "The Association between the Macronutrient Content of Maternal Diet and the Adequacy of Micronutrients during Pregnancy in the Women and Their Children’s Health (WATCH) Study" Nutrients 4, no. 12: 1958-1976. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4121958