Food Insecurity, Health, and Socioeconomic Status: Results from the University of the Basque Country, Spain
Highlights
- Food insecurity, associated with multiple negative health outcomes, partly explained by socioeconomic status, is prevalent among university students.
- To effectively address food insecurity, higher education institutions should consider implementing comprehensive strategies.
- Future longitudinal studies are recommended to systematically monitor food insecurity and examine causal relationships.
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Validation of FIES Data and Prevalence of Food Insecurity
3.2. Participant Characteristics
3.3. Association Between Food Insecurity, Overweight/Obesity, and Self-Reported Health Status: Socioeconomic Status as a Mediator
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Hunger and Food Insecurity. 2024. Available online: http://www.fao.org/hunger/en/ (accessed on 14 September 2024).
- Probst, C.; Kilian, C.; Rehm, J.; Carvalho, A.F.; Koyanagi, A.; Lange, S. Socioeconomic inequality in the risk of intentional injuries among adolescents: A cross-sectional analysis of 89 countries. Inj. Prev. 2021, 27, 349–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Puchulu, M.B.; Garcia-Fernandez, N.; Landry, M.J. Food Insecurity and Chronic Kidney Disease: Considerations for Practitioners. J. Ren. Nutr. 2023, 33, 691–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Bank. Prevalence of Moderate or Severe Food Insecurity in the Population (%)—Spain. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org (accessed on 30 April 2023).
- Consejo General de Colegios Oficiales de Dietistas-Nutricionistas y Academia Española de Nutrición y Dietética. Manifiesto por la Visibilidad de la Inseguridad Alimentaria en España [Manifesto for the Visibility of Food Insecurity in Spain]. Available online: https://www.codnib.es/attachments/article/1179/MANIFIESTO%20POR%20LA%20VISIBILIDAD%20DE%20LA%20INSEGURIDAD%20ALIMENTARIA%20IN%20SPAIN_CGCODN_ELENA_ACH.pdf (accessed on 29 March 2025).
- Borch, A.; Kjærnes, U. Food security and food insecurity in Europe: An analysis of the academic discourse (1975–2013). Appetite 2016, 103, 137–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moradi, S.; Mirzababaei, A.; Dadfarma, A.; Rezaei, S.; Mohammadi, H.; Jannat, B.; Mirzaei, K. Food insecurity and adult weight abnormality risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Nutr. 2019, 58, 45–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martinez, S.M.; Grandner, M.A.; Nazmi, A.; Canedo, E.R.; Ritchie, L.D. Pathways from Food Insecurity to Health Outcomes among California University Students. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knowles, M.; Rabinowich, J.; Ettinger de Cuba, S.; Cutts, D.B.; Chilton, M. “Do You Wanna Breathe or Eat?”: Parent Perspectives on Child Health Consequences of Food Insecurity, Trade-Offs, and Toxic Stress. Matern. Child. Health J. 2016, 20, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willis, D.E.; Fitzpatrick, K.M. Psychosocial factors as mediators of food insecurity and weight status among middle school students. Appetite 2016, 103, 236–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morales, M.E.; Berkowitz, S.A. The Relationship between Food Insecurity, Dietary Patterns, and Obesity. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2016, 5, 54–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Graham, R.; Stolte, O.; Hodgetts, D.; Chamberlain, K. Nutritionism and the construction of ‘poor choices’ in families facing food insecurity. J. Health Psychol. 2018, 23, 1863–1871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nisa, H.; Kurotani, K. Editorial: Diet quality, socioeconomic differences, and health disparities. Front. Nutr. 2023, 10, 1250439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Campbell, C.C. Food insecurity: A nutritional outcome or a predictor variable? J. Nutr. 1991, 121, 408–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Link, B.G.; Phelan, J.C. Understanding sociodemographic differences in health—The role of fundamental social causes. Am. J. Public. Health 1996, 86, 471–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Owens, M.R.; Brito-Silva, F.; Kirkland, T.; Moore, C.E.; Davis, K.E.; Patterson, M.A.; Miketinas, D.C.; Tucker, W.J. Prevalence and Social Determinants of Food Insecurity among College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bruening, M.; Argo, K.; Payne-Sturges, D.; Laska, M.N. The Struggle Is Real: A Systematic Review of Food Insecurity on Postsecondary Education Campuses. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 117, 1767–1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abbey, E.L.; Brown, M.; Karpinski, C. Prevalence of food insecurity in the general college population and student-athletes: A review of the literature. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 2022, 11, 185–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hagedorn-Hatfield, R.; Richards, R.; Qamar, Z.; Hood, L.B.; Landry, M.J.; Savoie-Roskos, M.R.; Vogelzand, J.L.; Machado, S.S.; OoNorasak, K.; Cuite, C.L. Campus-based programmes to address food insecurity vary in leadership, funding and evaluation strategies. Nutr. Bull. 2022, 47, 322–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Whatnall, M.C.; Hutchesson, M.J.; Patterson, A.J. Predictors of Food Insecurity among Australian University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2019, 17, 60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bauch, C.; Torheim, L.E.; Almendingen, K.; Molin, M.; Terragni, L. Food Habits and Forms of Food Insecurity among International University Students in Oslo: A Qualitative Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2023, 20, 2694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kötzsche, M.; Teuber, R.; Jordan, I.; Heil, E.; Torheim, L.E.; Arroyo-Izaga, M. Prevalence and predictors of food insecurity among university students—Results from the Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany. Prev. Med. Rep. 2023, 36, 102526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Repella, B.M.; Rice, J.G.; Arroyo-Izaga, M.; Torheim, L.E.; Birgisdottir, B.E.; Jakobsdottir, G. Prevalence of Food Insecurity and Associations with Academic Performance, Food Consumption and Social Support among University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: FINESCOP Project in Iceland. Nutrients 2024, 16, 764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- González-Pérez, R.; García-Iruretagoyena, L.; Martinez-Perez, N.; Telleria-Aramburu, N.; Telletxea, S.; Padoan, S.; Torheim, L.E.; Arroyo-Izaga, M. Prevalence and Predictors of Food Insecurity among Students of a Spanish University during the COVID-19 Pandemic: FINESCOP Project at the UPV/EHU. Nutrients 2023, 15, 1836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hervada Vidal, X.; Santiago Pérez, M.I.; Vázquez Fernández, E.; Castillo Salgado, C.; Loyola Elizondo, E.; Silva Ayçaguer, L.C. Epidat v. 3.1: Epidemiological Analysis of Tabulated Data; Xunta de Galicia: Galicia, Spain, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Sharma, A.; Minh Duc, N.T.; Luu Lam Thang, T.; Nam, N.H.; Ng, S.J.; Abbas, K.S.; Huy, N.T.; Marušić, A.; Paul, C.L.; Kwok, J.; et al. A Consensus-Based Checklist for Reporting of Survey Studies (CROSS). J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2021, 36, 3179–3187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mahdy, M.A.A. The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Academic Performance of Veterinary Medical Students. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020, 7, 594261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- United Nations Expert Group on Migration Statistics. Standard Questions on International Migration. 2018. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/migration-expert-group/methodology/Standard%20set%20of%20migration%20questions.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2024).
- International Standard Classification of Education. Overview of the International Standard Level of Education [ISLED], ESS-R1-R4. Available online: http://www.harryganzeboom.nl/isled/isled_ESS1234.pdf (accessed on 1 May 2024).
- Ballard, T.J.; Kepple, A.W.; Cafiero, C.; Statistics Division. The Food Insecurity Experience Scale: Development of a Global Standard for Monitoring Hunger Worldwide; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2013; Available online: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/29506589-c91c-44aa-b628-b032ea38f691/content (accessed on 1 May 2024).
- WHO Consultation on Obesity; World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic: Report of a WHO Consultation; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2000; Available online: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/42330 (accessed on 27 August 2023).
- Brooks, R. EuroQol: The current state of play. Health Policy 1996, 37, 53–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uzunel, E.; Lundin, H.; Wändell, P.; Salminen, H. Association between self-rated health and the risk of hip fracture and mortality in a cohort of older women during a 10-year follow-up. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0247924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Holm, A.E.; Gomes, L.C.; Wegener, A.; Lima, K.O.; Matos, L.O.; Vieira, I.V.M.; Kaagaard, M.D.; Pareek, M.; de Souza, R.M.; Marinho, C.R.F.; et al. Is self-rated health associated with cardiovascular risk factors and disease in a low-income setting? A cross-sectional study from the Amazon Basin of Brazil. BMJ Open 2022, 12, e058277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- University College Dublin, Institute of Food and Health. The National COVID-19 Food Study, 2020. Available online: https://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/32826/1/The_National_COVID-19_Food_Study_REPORT.pdf (accessed on 18 February 2024).
- Di Renzo, L.; Gualtieri, P.; Pivari, F.; Soldati, L.; Attinà, A.; Cinelli, G.; Leggeri, C.; Caparello, G.; Barrea, L.; Scerbo, F.; et al. Eating habits and lifestyle changes during COVID-19 lockdown: An Italian survey. J. Transl. Med. 2020, 18, 229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Górnicka, M.; Drywień, M.E.; Zielinska, M.A.; Hamułka, J. Dietary and Lifestyle Changes During COVID-19 and the Subsequent Lockdowns among Polish Adults: A Cross-Sectional Online Survey PLifeCOVID-19 Study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Food and Agriculture Organization. Analyse the Data. Available online: https://www.fao.org/in-action/voices-of-the-hungry/analyse-data/en (accessed on 27 August 2023).
- Food and Agriculture Organization. Methods for Estimating Comparable Rates of Food Insecurity Experienced by Adults Throughout the World. Available online: https://elearning.fao.org/course/view.php?id=360 (accessed on 8 June 2020).
- Wright, B.D.; Linacre, J.M. Reasonable mean-square fit values. Rasch Meas. Trans. 1994, 8, 370. [Google Scholar]
- Linacre, M. Teaching Rasch measurement. Trans. Rasch Meas. SIG Am. Educ. Res. Assoc. 2017, 31, 1630–1631. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, A.F.; Rockwood, N.J. Regression-based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behav. Res. Ther. 2017, 98, 39–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach; The Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Martinez-Lacoba, R.; Pardo-Garcia, I.; Amo-Saus, E.; Escribano-Sotos, F. Socioeconomic, demographic and lifestyle-related factors associated with unhealthy diet: A cross-sectional study of university students. BMC Public Health 2018, 18, 1241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patton-López, M.M.; López-Cevallos, D.F.; Cancel-Tirado, D.I.; Vazquez, L. Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among students attending a midsize rural university in Oregon. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2014, 46, 209–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Freudenberg, N.; Manzo, L.; Jones, H.; Kwan, A.; Tsui, E.; Gagnon, M. Food Insecurity at CUNY: Results from a Survey of CUNY Undergraduate Students; Campaign for a Healthy CUNY: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Goldrick-Rab, S.; Richardson, J.; Schneider, J.H.; Hernandez, A.; Cady, C. Still Hungry and Homeless in College; Wisconsin HOPE Lab. Available online: https://www.bhcc.edu/media/03-documents/voicesofhunger/Wisconsin-HOPE-Lab-Still-Hungry-and-Homeless-April-2018.pdf (accessed on 18 February 2023).
- El Zein, A.; Shelnutt, K.P.; Colby, S.; Vilaro, M.J.; Zhou, W.; Greene, G.; Olfert, M.D.; Riggsbee, K.; Morrell, J.S.; Mathews, A.E. Prevalence and correlates of food insecurity among U.S. college students: A multi-institutional study. BMC Public Health 2019, 19, 660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raskind, I.G.; Haardörfer, R.; Berg, C.J. Food insecurity, psychosocial health and academic performance among college and university students in Georgia, USA. Public Health Nutr. 2019, 22, 476–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sackey, J.D.; Pike, K.; Rothpletz-Puglia, P.; Brody, R.; Touger-Decker, R. Food insecurity among health sciences graduate students at a large northeastern university. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2021, 53, 428–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahmad, N.S.S.; Sulaiman, N.; Sabri, M.F. Food insecurity: Is it a threat to university students’ well-being and success? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moragues Faus, A.; Magaña González, C.R. Alimentando un Futuro Sostenible: Estudio Sobre la Inseguridad Alimentaria Antes y Durante la COVID-19 [Feeding a Sustainable Future: Study on Food Insecurity Before and During COVID-19]; Universidad de Barcelona y Fundación Daniel y Nina Carasso: Barcelona, Spain, 2022; Available online: https://www.ub.edu/alimentandounfuturosostenible/documents/informe-alimentacion_una-pag.pdf (accessed on 8 April 2023).
- Nikolaus, C.J.; Ellison, B.; Nickols-Richardson, S.M. Are estimates of food insecurity among college students accurate? Comparison of assessment protocols. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0215161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moore, C.; Davis, K.; Wang, W. Low food security present on Texas college campuses despite high nutrition literacy. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 2020, 4 (Suppl. S2), 246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022: Repurposing Food and Agricultural Policies to Make Healthy Diets More Affordable; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mane, E.; Giaquinto, A.M.; Cafiero, C.; Viviani, S.; Anríquez, G. Why Are Women more Food Insecure than Men? Exploring Socioeconomic Drivers and the Role of COVID-19 in Widening the Global Gender Gap—Background Paper for The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Broton, K.M.; Goldrick-Rab, S. Going without: An exploration of food and housing insecurity among undergraduates. Educ. Res. 2018, 47, 121–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sánchez Caballero, D. El Coste de Estudiar en la Universidad Pública ha Subido 12 Veces más que los Salarios [The Cost of Studying at a Public University Has Risen 12 Times More Tan Wages]. 2019. Available online: https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/estudiar-universidad-encarecido-empezo-salarios_1_1445811.html (accessed on 12 May 2022).
- El Zein, A.; Colby, S.E.; Zhou, W.; Shelnutt, K.P.; Greene, G.W.; Horacek, T.M.; Olfert, M.D.; Mathews, A.E. Food Insecurity Is Associated with Increased Risk of Obesity in US College Students. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 2020, 4, nzaa120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Willis, D.E. Feeding inequality: Food insecurity, social status, and college student health. Sociol. Health Illn. 2021, 43, 220–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Becerra, M.B.; Becerra, B.J. Psychological distress among college students: Role of food insecurity and other social determinants of mental health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tewodros, Y.; Asresash, S.; Eyob, T.; Binyam, G.S.; Bayu, B.B.; Aragaw, T.; Nigusie, S. Assessment of abdominal obesity prevalence and determinants among adults in southwest Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study. Front. Public Health 2024, 12, 1400066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernández-Mellizo, M. Análisis del Abandono de los Estudiantes de Grado en las Universidades Presenciales en España; Ministerio de Universidades. Available online: https://ccsu.es/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Informe-Abandono-Universitario.pdf (accessed on 14 September 2024).
- Swipe Out Hunger. Swipe Out Hunger: Ending College Student Hunger. 2022. Available online: https://www.swipehunger.org (accessed on 4 April 2025).
- Oronce, C.I.A.; Miake-Lye, I.M.; Begashaw, M.M.; Booth, M.; Shrank, W.H.; Shekelle, P.G. Interventions to Address Food Insecurity Among Adults in Canada and the US: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Am. Med. Assoc. 2021, 2, e212001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martinez, S.M.; Webb, K.; Frongillo, E.A.; Ritchie, L.D. Food insecurity in California’s public university system: What are the risk factors? J. Hunger. Environ. Nutr. 2018, 13, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, Y. Missing data analysis using multiple imputation: Getting to the heart of the matter. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2010, 3, 98–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, M.R.; Kleinert, W.L.; Sheppard, A.V.; Cantrell, K.A.; Freeman-Coppadge, D.J.; Tsoy, E.; Roberts, T.; Pearrow, M. The relationship between food security, housing stability, and school performance among college students in an urban university. J. Coll. Stud. Ret. 2017, 19, 284–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable, % 1 or Mean (SD) | Overall | FI Status 2 | Overweight/Obesity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
None 3 | Moderate and Severe | p 4 | No 5 | Yes | p 4 | ||
n 6 | 42,135 | 40,755 | 1381 | 31,486 | 5122 | ||
Demographic variables | |||||||
Sex 7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||
Female | 70.3 | 96.1 | 3.9 | 89.3 | 10.7 | ||
Male | 29.7 | 98.0 | 2.0 | 77.4 | 22.6 | ||
Age | 22.8 (5.6) | 22.8 (5.6) | 24.6 (4.2) | <0.001 | 22.6 (5.0) | 24.1 (7.7) | <0.001 |
Immigrant | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||
No | 93.5 | 97.2 | 2.8 | 87.0 | 13.0 | ||
Yes | 6.5 | 90.0 | 10.0 | 72.5 | 27.5 | ||
Socioeconomic variables | |||||||
ELoP/Lg 8 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||
<Tertiary education | 40.8 | 94.8 | 5.2 | 80.9 | 19.1 | ||
Tertiary education | 59.2 | 98.0 | 2.0 | 89.4 | 10.6 | ||
Decrease in the main source of income | <0.001 | 0.581 | |||||
No | 85.6 | 97.8 | 2.2 | 86.8 | 13.2 | ||
Yes | 14.4 | 91.2 | 8.8 | 86.5 | 13.5 | ||
ES before the pandemic 9, h/week | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||
Unemployed, 0 | 68.3 | 97.1 | 2.9 | 84.1 | 15.9 | ||
Employed, ≤20 | 18.6 | 96.6 | 3.4 | 88.9 | 11.1 | ||
Employed, >20 | 13.1 | 94.8 | 5.2 | 91.2 | 8.8 | ||
Worsening in employment status during the pandemic | 0.003 | <0.001 | |||||
No | 69.2 | 96.9 | 3.1 | 85.4 | 14.6 | ||
Yes | 30.8 | 95.9 | 4.1 | 91.1 | 8.9 | ||
Lifestyle during the pandemic (score) | |||||||
Vegetable intake (1–8) 10 | 4.4 (1.5) | 4.4 (1.5) | 3.3 (1.3) | <0.001 | 4.4 (1.5) | 4.2 (1.6) | <0.001 |
Fruit intake (1–8) 10 | 4.9 (2.1) | 4.9 (2.1) | 3.6 (1.3) | <0.001 | 4.8 (2.1) | 4.7 (1.8) | <0.001 |
Exercise (1–7) 11 | 4.5 (1.8) | 4.5 (1.8) | 3.4 (2.1) | <0.001 | 4.6 (1.8) | 4.2 (1.9) | <0.001 |
Variable, % 1 or Mean (SD) | SRPH 2,3 | SRPsH 2,4 | Worsening SRPH | Worsening SRPsH | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T3 | p 5 | T1 | T3 | p 5 | No | Yes | p 5 | No | Yes | p 5 | |
n 6 | 13,347 | 19,611 | 9274 | 18,156 | 25,964 | 15,329 | 16,120 | 25,174 | ||||
Demographic variables | ||||||||||||
Sex 7 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||
Female | 30.7 | 50.5 | 22.3 | 38.9 | 65.9 | 34.3 | 37.4 | 62.6 | ||||
Male | 34.3 | 41.2 | 23.6 | 55.6 | 57.3 | 42.7 | 44.2 | 55.8 | ||||
Age | 23.4 (5.0) | 22.5 (5.6) | <0.001 | 22.7 (4.1) | 23.3 (6.6) | 0.074 | 23.0 (6.0) | 22.5 (4.8) | <0.001 | 23.4 (7.2) | 22.5 (4.3) | <0.001 |
Immigrant | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.002 | <0.001 | ||||||||
No | 31.4 | 47.9 | 23.1 | 44.3 | 62.7 | 37.3 | 38.7 | 61.3 | ||||
Yes | 44.7 | 42.1 | 14.0 | 40.0 | 65.7 | 34.3 | 43.8 | 56.2 | ||||
Socioeconomic variables | ||||||||||||
ELoP/Lg 8 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||
<Tertiary education | 36.2 | 43.0 | 20.3 | 48.1 | 58.6 | 41.4 | 45.9 | 54.1 | ||||
Tertiary education | 29.9 | 51.0 | 24.4 | 41.4 | 65.4 | 34.6 | 33.2 | 66.8 | ||||
Decrease in the main source of income | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||||
No | 28.8 | 49.7 | 21.9 | 44.8 | 66.8 | 33.2 | 38.5 | 61.5 | ||||
Yes | 48.0 | 32.8 | 31.8 | 38.1 | 43.7 | 56.3 | 36.0 | 64.0 | ||||
ES before the pandemic 9, h/week | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.013 | ||||||||
Unemployed, 0 | 30.0 | 49.7 | 19.4 | 46.0 | 51.7 | 48.3 | 38.7 | 61.3 | ||||
Employed, ≤20 | 48.7 | 31.5 | 31.2 | 37.1 | 44.2 | 55.8 | 40.5 | 59.5 | ||||
Employed, >20 | 20.9 | 58.9 | 26.0 | 43.2 | 63.6 | 36.4 | 38.6 | 61.4 | ||||
Worsening in ES during the pandemic | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||
No | 31.7 | 47.1 | 20.5 | 44.8 | 63.6 | 36.4 | 39.5 | 60.5 | ||||
Yes | 46.3 | 46.1 | 47.8 | 31.2 | 52.2 | 47.8 | 16.3 | 83.7 | ||||
Lifestyle during the pandemic (score) | ||||||||||||
Vegetable intake (1–8) 10 | 3.9 (1.5) | 4.8(1.4) | <0.001 | 4.3(1.5) | 4.4 (1.6) | <0.001 | 4.7 (1.4) | 3.8 (1.5) | <0.001 | 4.4 (1.5) | 4.3 (1.5) | <0.001 |
Fruit intake (1–8) 10 | 4.3 (2.0) | 5.2(2.1) | <0.001 | 4.5(2.2) | 5.1 (2.0) | <0.001 | 5.1 (2.1) | 4.4 (2.0) | <0.001 | 5.1 (2.0) | 4.7 (2.1) | <0.001 |
Exercise (1–7) 11 | 3.3 (1.7) | 5.1(1.5) | <0.001 | 4.0(1.9) | 4.6 (1.8) | <0.001 | 4.9 (1.6) | 3.6 (1.8) | <0.001 | 4.8 (1.6) | 4.3 (1.9) | <0.001 |
Health Outcome (n) 1 | Model | B | 95% CI for B | p | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BMI (39,091) | 1: Adjusted for control variables 2 | 0.24 | 0.21–0.28 | <0.001 | 0.055 |
2: Model 1 + SES 3 | 0.21 | 0.17–0.24 | <0.001 | 0.070 | |
3: Model 2 + lifestyle factors 4 | 0.17 | 0.13–0.20 | <0.001 | 0.073 | |
SRPH (41,294) | 1: Adjusted for control variables 2 | −2.50 | −2.72–−2.28 | <0.001 | 0.019 |
2: Model 1 + SES 3 | −2.60 | −2.81–−2.38 | <0.001 | 0.037 | |
3: Model 2 + lifestyle factors 4 | −1.48 | −1.70–−1.26 | <0.001 | 0.127 | |
SRPsH (41,294) | 1: Adjusted for control variables 2 | −5.72 | −5.96–−5.48 | <0.001 | 0.055 |
2: Model 1 + SES 3 | −5.70 | −5.95–−5.46 | <0.001 | 0.059 | |
3: Model 2 + lifestyle factors 4 | −5.19 | −5.44–−4.93 | <0.001 | 0.076 | |
Change in SRPH during the pandemic 5 (41,294) | 1: Adjusted for control variables 2 | 0.82 | 0.63–1.01 | <0.001 | 0.021 |
2: Model 1 + SES 3 | 0.83 | 0.65–1.02 | <0.001 | 0.025 | |
3: Model 2 + lifestyle factors 4 | −0.13 | −0.32–0.06 | 0.188 | 0.144 | |
Change in the SRPsH during the pandemic 5 (41,294) | 1: Adjusted for control variables 2 | 4.02 | 3.80–4.23 | <0.001 | 0.034 |
2: Model 1 + SES 3 | 3.90 | 3.68–4.12 | <0.001 | 0.042 | |
3: Model 2 + lifestyle factors 4 | 3.68 | 3.45–3.91 | <0.001 | 0.073 |
Dependent Variable (n) 1 | Model 2 | Effect | 95% CI | p | % Mediated |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BMI (39,091) | Direct effect | 1.60 | −0.11–3.31 | NS | |
Indirect effect | 0.25 | −0.17–0.75 | <0.05 3 | ||
ELoP/Lg | 0.28 | −0.02–0.72 | <0.05 3 | 0.153 | |
ES | −0.03 | −0.27–0.13 | <0.05 3 | 0.017 | |
Total effect | 1.85 | 0.14–3.56 | 0.034 | ||
SRPH (41,294) | Direct effect | −14.37 | −24.52–−4.23 | 0.006 | |
Indirect effect | −0.48 | −2.81–1.41 | NS | ||
ELoP/Lg | −0.62 | −2.62–0.80 | <0.05 3 | 0.042 | |
ES | 0.13 | −0.75–1.33 | NS | 0.009 | |
Total effect | −14.85 | −24.93–−4.78 | 0.004 | ||
SRPsH (41,294) | Direct effect | −20.10 | −31.66–−8.53 | <0.001 | |
Indirect effect | −1.28 | −3.98–0.70 | <0.05 3 | ||
ELoP/Lg | −1.01 | −3.65–0.45 | <0.05 3 | 0.050 | |
ES | −0.27 | −1.96–1.29 | NS | 0.012 | |
Total effect | −21.38 | −32.90–−9.86 | <0.001 | ||
Change in SRPH during the pandemic 4 (41,294) | Direct effect | 4.72 | −3.42–12.86 | NS | |
Indirect effect | −0.15 | −1.71–1.02 | NS | ||
ELoP/Lg | −0.16 | −1.57–0.81 | <0.05 3 | 0.036 | |
ES | 0.01 | −0.69–0.73 | <0.05 3 | 0.002 | |
Total effect | 4.57 | −3.50–12.63 | NS | ||
Change in the SRPsH during the pandemic 4 (41,294) | Direct effect | 5.72 | −4.78–15.83 | NS | |
Indirect effect | 0.57 | −0.94–2.50 | NS | ||
ELoP/Lg | 0.43 | −0.78–2.28 | NS | 0.072 | |
ES | 0.14 | −0.82–1.31 | NS | 0.022 | |
Total effect | 6.09 | −4.13–16.31 | NS |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
García-Iruretagoyena, L.; Martinez-Perez, N.; Colen, L.; Baeta, M.; Olalde, I.; Torheim, L.E.; Arroyo-Izaga, M. Food Insecurity, Health, and Socioeconomic Status: Results from the University of the Basque Country, Spain. Nutrients 2025, 17, 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081314
García-Iruretagoyena L, Martinez-Perez N, Colen L, Baeta M, Olalde I, Torheim LE, Arroyo-Izaga M. Food Insecurity, Health, and Socioeconomic Status: Results from the University of the Basque Country, Spain. Nutrients. 2025; 17(8):1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081314
Chicago/Turabian StyleGarcía-Iruretagoyena, Laura, Naiara Martinez-Perez, Liesbeth Colen, Miriam Baeta, Iñigo Olalde, Liv Elin Torheim, and Marta Arroyo-Izaga. 2025. "Food Insecurity, Health, and Socioeconomic Status: Results from the University of the Basque Country, Spain" Nutrients 17, no. 8: 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081314
APA StyleGarcía-Iruretagoyena, L., Martinez-Perez, N., Colen, L., Baeta, M., Olalde, I., Torheim, L. E., & Arroyo-Izaga, M. (2025). Food Insecurity, Health, and Socioeconomic Status: Results from the University of the Basque Country, Spain. Nutrients, 17(8), 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17081314