Association Between Physical Fitness and Cardiovascular Health in Chilean Schoolchildren from the Metropolitan Region
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Methodology
Anthropometry
- Weight and height: Weight was obtained with the schoolchild standing at the center of the scale (SECA Ltd., Hamburg, Germany) wearing light clothing (no shoes, long pants, sweaters, or shirts) and without support. Height measurement was taken with heels together, arms along the body, and back against the scale (SECA Ltd.), with the head in the Frankfurt plane. The BMI Z-Score was calculated based on the 2007 WHO reference for sex and age to classify nutritional status [22]. Studies in Latin America and Chile have shown that these references are consistent with the distribution of BMI in local populations. This reference has been previously validated in Latin American populations with similar characteristics and is widely accepted in the region.
- Skinfold thickness (Total body fat): Skinfolds (triceps, biceps, suprailiac, and subscapular) were measured with a LANGE caliper [23]. The mid-upper arm circumference was measured at the midpoint between the acromion and olecranon, with the arm extended and relaxed, without depressing the skin. The sum of skinfolds was used as a measure of subcutaneous fat [24]. The intra-observer technical error of measurement and mean observer bias were within the limits suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) [21].
- Waist circumference: A fiberglass tape measure was used to measure waist circumference at the top of the iliac crest, ensuring that the tape did not compress and was parallel to the floor. The measurement was taken at the end of a normal expiration [25].
- Blood pressure: A sphygmomanometer was used to measure blood pressure after the schoolchild had been seated for 10 min, with the arm supported and at heart level. The NANHES 2004 standard [26] and the 90th percentile were used to determine the proportion of schoolchildren with altered blood pressure (systolic or diastolic) [27].
- Puberty: Pubertal development was classified using Tanner stages based on breast development in girls and genital development in boys [28]. Pubertal status was assessed by a nutritionist who received specialized training in using the Tanner scale prior to the study. The training included theoretical sessions on the stages of pubertal development and practical workshops supervised by a pediatric endocrinologist. The nutritionist was evaluated for accuracy and consistency during a pilot phase to ensure reliability in identifying the stages of pubertal development. This rigorous preparation ensured that the assessments were conducted with precision and adherence to clinical standards.
2.3. Physical Fitness Tests
- Handgrip dynamometry: Handgrip strength (kg) was measured with a digital dynamometer (TKK 5101 Grip-D; Takei, Tokyo, Japan). The size of the right hand was measured to find the optimal grip span [29].
- Standing long jump: To measure lower body explosive strength, the schoolchild stood behind the jump line with feet shoulder-width apart. They bent their knees and swung their arms before jumping as far as possible [30].
- Six-minute walk test: This functional cardiorespiratory test measures the maximum distance covered in six min. It was performed on a flat, non-slip surface with a minimum perimeter of 30 m [31].
- Heart rate: Heart rate was measured with a POLAR heart rate monitor before, during, and after the walk test. It was recorded in three consecutive periods: (a) Pre-test, after three minutes in a seated position; (b) Minute by minute during the test; (c) Post-exercise recovery in each of the three minutes following the test [32].
2.4. Metabolic Risk Factors
2.5. Statistics
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Grade | Male n (%) | Female n (%) | Total n (%) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 109 (49.6) | 111 (50.5) | 220 |
2 | 109 (50.5) | 107 (49.5) | 216 |
3 | 107 (49.1) | 111 (50.9) | 218 |
4 | 96 (50.0) | 96 (50.0) | 192 |
5 | 100 (51.3) | 95 (48.7) | 195 |
6 | 106 (50.2) | 105 (49.8) | 211 |
7 | 103 (50.5) | 101 (49.5) | 204 |
8 | 98 (49.0) | 102 (51.0) | 200 |
Total | 828 (50.0) | 828 (50.0) | 1656 (100.0) |
Grades | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | 1 (n = 220) | 2 (n = 216) | 3 (n = 218) | 4 (n = 192) | 5 (n = 195) | 6 (n = 211) | 7 (n = 204) | 8 (n = 200) |
Boys (n = 828) | ||||||||
Weight (k) | 27.1 ± 5.1 | 29.6 ± 6.7 | 33.7 ± 9.5 | 36.8 ± 8.0 | 42.0 ± 9.6 | 47.1 ± 10.7 | 55.9 ± 11.8 * | 57.6 ± 14.9 |
Height (m) | 123.5 ± 5.7 * | 128.0 ± 6.5 | 132.5 ± 6.3 | 138.9 ± 6.5 | 144.4 ± 7.9 | 150.7 ± 8.0 | 158.8 ± 7.9 * | 161.9 ± 11.1 * |
Sum of skinfolds (mm) | 59.1 ± 6.7 | 61.2 ± 7.7 | 65.0 ± 9.8 | 66.2 ± 8.2 | 68.9 ± 8.4 | 72.1 ± 9.2 | 77.1 ± 10.2 * | 76.5 ± 11.6 |
Obesity (%) | 22 | 27.5 | 28.9 | 24.0 ** | 21.0 | 17.9 | 19.4 | 16.3 |
Waist circumference > p90 (%) | 16.5 | 14.5 | 23.5 | 19.8 | 13.0 | 10.4 ** | 18.5 | 17.4 |
Blood pressure > p90 (%) | 1.2 | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 1.9 | 3.9 | 12.2 |
Horizontal jump (m) | 1.0 ± 0.2 * | 1.1 ± 0.2 * | 1.2 ± 0.2 * | 1.2 ± 0.2 * | 1.3 ± 0.2 * | 1.4 ± 0.2 * | 1.4 ± 0.2 * | 1.6 ± 0.3 * |
Grip strength (k) | 10.6 ± 2.0 | 12.1 ± 2.7 | 13.5 ± 2.3 | 16.1 ± 2.7 * | 17.8 ± 3.8 | 20.9 ± 4.9 | 25.7 ± 6.3 * | 30.4 ± 7.5 * |
Distance 6-min test (m) | 575.5 ± 55.9 | 618.3 ± 49.5 | 643.3 ± 54.8 | 672.1 ± 46.9 * | 680.1 ± 60.1 | 686.9 ± 53.4 * | 683.3 ± 55.5 * | 715.6 ± 61.7 * |
Girls (n = 828) | ||||||||
Weight (k) | 25.8 ± 4.9 | 29.5 ± 4.8 | 34.1 ± 7.0 | 36.5 ± 7.8 | 42.0 ± 9.0 | 47.6 ± 11.4 | 52.2 ± 10.3 * | 56.2 ± 11.5 |
Height (m) | 121.1 ± 5.9 * | 127.6 ± 4.7 | 133.8 ± 5.7 | 137.9 ± 6.9 | 144.1 ± 7.8 | 148.9 ± 6.3 | 154.9 ± 5.9 * | 157.4 ± 6.2 * |
Sum of skinfolds (mm) | 58.4 ± 6.6 | 61.5 ± 6.8 | 64.6 ± 8.1 | 65.6 ± 8.5 | 68.3 ± 8.6 | 72.7 ± 9.6 | 72.9 ± 9.6 * | 75.7 ± 9.9 |
Obesity (%) | 21.6 | 17.0 | 23.4 | 12.5 ** | 12.6 | 20.9 | 11.0 | 14.7 |
Waist circumference > p90 (%) | 13.3 | 14.7 | 22.5 | 17.7 | 17.7 | 22.9 ** | 22.9 | 14.7 |
Blood pressure > p90 (%) | 1.0 | 1.3 | 4.5 | 4.2 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 8.8 |
Horizontal jump (m) | 0.9 ± 0.1 * | 1.0 ± 0.2 * | 1.0 ± 0.2 * | 1.1 ± 0.2 * | 1.2 ± 0.2 * | 1.2 ± 0.2 * | 1.2 ± 0.2 * | 1.2 ± 0.2 * |
Grip strength (k) | 10.1 ± 0.8 | 11.6 ± 2.0 | 13.2 ± 2.5 | 15.2 ± 2.9 * | 17.5 ± 3.8 | 20.0 ± 3.9 | 21.7 ± 3.8 * | 23.6 ± 3.8 * |
Distance 6-min test (m) | 578.7 ± 51.1 | 617.1 ± 46.1 | 639.4 ± 45.7 | 654.6 ± 45.7 * | 671.3 ± 45.2 | 659.4 ± 51.6 * | 657.7 ± 49.8 * | 657.8 ± 49.4 * |
Variable | Distance/Height | Jump/Height | Grip Strength/Weight |
---|---|---|---|
Waist circumference | −0.45 | 0.13 | 0.56 |
p | 0.001 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 |
Sum of skinfolds | −0.38 | −0.43 | −0.48 |
p | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Blood pressure | 0.27 | --- | --- |
p | 0.01 |
Distance/Height | Jump/Height (Z-Score MR) | Grip Strength/Weight (Z-Score MR) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Medium | High | Low | Medium | High | |
High | −0.58 | −0.79 | −1.03 | −0.75 | −1.15 | −1.10 |
Medium | 0.36 | 0.23 | −0.47 | 0.16 | 0.06 | −0.78 |
Low | 1.86 | 0.89 | −0.17 | 2.10 | 1.26 | 0.27 |
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Vasquez, F.; Salazar, G.; Vasquez, S.; Torres, J. Association Between Physical Fitness and Cardiovascular Health in Chilean Schoolchildren from the Metropolitan Region. Nutrients 2025, 17, 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010182
Vasquez F, Salazar G, Vasquez S, Torres J. Association Between Physical Fitness and Cardiovascular Health in Chilean Schoolchildren from the Metropolitan Region. Nutrients. 2025; 17(1):182. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010182
Chicago/Turabian StyleVasquez, Fabian, Gabriela Salazar, Sofia Vasquez, and Jorge Torres. 2025. "Association Between Physical Fitness and Cardiovascular Health in Chilean Schoolchildren from the Metropolitan Region" Nutrients 17, no. 1: 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010182
APA StyleVasquez, F., Salazar, G., Vasquez, S., & Torres, J. (2025). Association Between Physical Fitness and Cardiovascular Health in Chilean Schoolchildren from the Metropolitan Region. Nutrients, 17(1), 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010182