Validating Healthy Eating Index, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load with Modern Diets for E-Health Era
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Dietary Parameters and Indexes
2.2. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Healthy Eating Parameters
3.2. Predictive Modeling for Healthy Eating Parameters
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters, Units (Units, Max Score) | M ± SD M ± SD | Liquid N = 8 | Convenient N = 30 | Ethnic N = 71 | Smoothie N = 22 | p (F) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Fruits, cup | Intake | 2.27 ± 1.70 | 0.39 ± 0.40 | 0.86 ± 0.94 | 5.88 ± 1.60 | <0.0001 |
(>0.8 cup, 5) | Score | 5 ± 0 | 2.09 ± 1.53 | 3.13 ± 1.29 | 5 ± 0 | S > L E C; L > E C |
Whole Fruits, cup | Intake | 1.49 ± 2.17 | 0.11± 0.12 | 0.69 ± 0.89 | 5.53 ± 1.52 | <0.0001 |
(>0.4 cup, 5) | Score | 2.50 ± 2.67 | 1.33 ± 1.49 | 3.87 ± 1.03 | 5 ± 0 | S > L E C; L > C |
Vegetables, cup | Intake | 1.71 ± 3.17 | 0.89 ± 0.50 | 1.07 ± 0.80 | 7.40 ± 2.09 | <0.0001 |
(>1.1 cup, 5) | Score | 1.25 ± 2.31 | 3.47 ± 1.10 | 4.00 ± 1.02 | 5 ± 0 | S > L E C |
Dark greens, cup | Intake | 0.86 ±1.62 | 0.12 ± 0.29 | 0.41 ± 0.44 | 3.73 ± 1.01 | <0.0001 |
(>0.4 cup, 5) | Score | 1.25 ± 2.31 | 1.04 ± 1.18 | 3.69 ± 1.17 | 5 ± 0 | S > L E C; L > C |
Total Grains, oz | Intake | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 2.28 ± 1.46 | 2.65 ± 1.72 | 4.27 ± 2.79 | <0.0001 |
(>3 oz., 5) | Score | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 3.24 ± 1.43 | 3.86 ± 1.00 | 4.33 ± 1.20 | S > E C L; E C > L |
Whole Grains, oz | Intake | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.27 ± 0.16 | 0.51 ± 0.46 | 0.92 ± 0.61 | <0.0001 |
(>1.5 oz., 5) | Score | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.88 ± 0.52 | 1.58 ± 1.02 | 2.80 ± 1.61 | S > E C L; E > C L |
Dairy, cup | Intake | 0.88 ± 0.40 | 0.60 ± 0.19 | 0.52 ± 0.21 | 0.82 ± 0.71 | 0.0014 |
(>1.3 cup, 10) | Score | 6.72 ± 3.08 | 4.61 ± 1.48 | 4.02 ± 1.60 | 5.29 ± 3.50 | L S > E |
Proteins, oz | Intake | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 4.77 ± 2.95 | 3.87 ± 1.45 | 9.15 ± 6.16 | <0.0001 |
(>2.5 oz., 10) | Score | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 9.36 ± 1.07 | 9.16 ± 1.46 | 9.49 ± 1.47 | S > C E L; C E > L |
Oils and Nuts, g | Intake | 0.06 ± 0.08 | 12.77 ± 10.25 | 4.47 ± 3.12 | 21.80 ± 28.97 | <0.0001 |
(>12 g, 10) | Score | 0.05 ± 0.07 | 7.35 ± 3.81 | 3.51 ± 2.24 | 7.33 ± 3.44 | S > E L; C > E |
Saturated Fats, % calorie | Intake | 1.57± 1.78 | 17.12 ± 6.13 | 10.27 ± 5.79 | 23.07 ± 17.37 | <0.0001 |
(<8% calorie, 10) | Score | 8.91 ± 2.08 | 5.42 ± 2.10 | 6.63 ± 2.67 | 9.12 ± 1.81 | S > E L; C > E L; E > L |
Sodium, g | Intake | 2.45 ± 1.82 | 2.25 ± 0.84 | 2.62 ± 1.80 | 5.81 ± 2.45 | <0.0001 |
(<1.1 g, 10) | Score | 3.75 ± 5.18 | 1.39 ± 1.67 | 1.31 ± 2.13 | 0 ± 0 | S > E L |
Empty Calories, calorie | Intake | 203.50 ± 0.00 | 283.6 ± 169.5 | 61.89 ± 39.19 | 171.50 ± 179.2 | <0.0001 |
(<19% calorie, 20) | Score | 19.34 ± 1.86 | 17.14 ± 4.08 | 20.00 ± 0.00 | 20 ± 0 | C > S E; L S > E |
Healthy Eating Index Score | 48.78 ± 6.37 | 57.86 ± 4.90 | 65.28 ± 5.17 | 78.61 ± 7.43 | <0.0001 | |
>80 (good) | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 1 (1.4%) | 11 (50%) | S > E C L; E > C L; C > L | |
≥64.4 (median distribution) | 0 (0%) | 3 (10%) | 38 (53.5%) | 21 (95.5%) | ||
Glycemic Index Score | 56.38 ± 4.96 | 59.86 ± 3.06 | 58.88 ± 4.82 | 54.52 ± 3.72 | <0.0001 | |
≤55 (low and good) | 2 (25.0%) | 1 (3.33%) | 9 (12.9%) | 14 (63.6%) | C E > S | |
≤59 (median distribution) | 3 (27.3%) | 12 (40%) | 20 (28.2%) | 21 (95.5%) | ||
Glycemic Load (GI x Carbohydrate/100) | 74.30 ± 39.47 | 89.20 ± 24.87 | 68.69 ± 31.71 | 240.8 ± 75.77 | <0.0001 | |
≤71.8 (median distribution) | 4 (50%) | 9 (30%) | 53 (74.6%) | 0 (0%) | S > E L C | |
≥20 (high) | 8 (100%) | 30 (100%) | 71 (100%) | 22 (100%) | ||
Number of Meals Needed for GL < 20 | 3.71 ± 1.97 | 4.46 ± 1.24 | 3.43 ± 1.59 | 12.04 ± 3.79 | <0.0001 | |
≤3.59 (median distribution) | 4 (50%) | 9 (30%) | 53 (74.6%) | 0 (0%) | S > E L C | |
Carbohydrates, g | 135.6 ± 81.01 | 148.7 ± 40.40 | 117.4 ± 55.73 | 444.2 ± 140.3 | <0.0001 | |
≤123.4 g (median distribution) | 4 (50%) | 10 (33.3%) | 52 (73.2%) | 0 (0%) | S > E L C | |
Carbohydrates/Meals (GL < 20), g | 35.73 ± 3.30 | 33.50 ± 1.71 | 34.23 ± 3.31 | 36.83 ± 2.23 | 0.0003 | |
≤33.95 g (median distribution) | 5 (62.5%) | 17 (56.7%) | 43 (60.6%) | 1 (4.5%) | S > C E |
Parameters, Median Units | Logistic Regression Original Model | Generalized Regression Elastic Net Validation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | |
(Intercept) | −12.46 (−289.1–264.2) | 0.9296 | −9.35 (−9.90–−8.81) | <0.0001 |
Whole Fruits, ≥0.33 cup | −14.56 (−301.0–271.9) | 0.9206 | −11.40 (−13.54–−9.26) | <0.0001 |
Whole Grains, ≥0.41 oz | 14.10 (−292.0–263.7) | 0.9208 | −11.02 (−13.21–−8.83) | <0.0001 |
Empty Calories, ≤88.87 calorie | −14.86 (−261.8–291.5) | 0.9161 | 11.75 (9.64–13.86) | <0.0001 |
MR | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
AICc | 9.77 | 9.78 | ||
AUC | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Parameters, Median Units | Logistic Regression Original Model | Generalized Regression Elastic Net Validation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | |
GI≤ 55 | ||||
(Intercept) | 11.89 (−131.97–155.74) | 0.8713 | 9.68 (7.30–12.05) | <0.0001 |
Total Fruits, ≥0.43 cup | −11.74 (−155.58–−132.11) | 0.8729 | −9.53 (−10.27–−8.78) | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrates, ≥123.4 g | −2.06 (−3.44–−0.67) | 0.0037 | −2.06 (−3.42–−0.69) | 0.0032 |
Mexican Diets | −11.83 (−155.69–132.02) | 0.8719 | −9.63 (−11.91–−7.35) | <0.0001 |
MR | 0.23 | 0.23 | ||
AICc | 33.63 | 33.63 | ||
AUC | 0.84 | 0.84 | ||
GI ≤ 59 (median) | ||||
(Intercept) | 1.97 (−155.9–159.8) | 0.9805 | 1.84 (0.14–3.54) | 0.0336 |
Total Fruits, ≥0.43 cup | −1.47 (−2.38–−0.56) | 0.0016 | −1.47 (−2.38–−0.56) | 0.0016 |
Mexican Diets | −10.83 (−127.6–106.0) | 0.8558 | −9.92 (−10.99–−8.86) | <0.0001 |
Chinese Diets | 9.46 (−96.73–115.7) | 0.8614 | 8.69 (7.63–9.74) | <0.0001 |
MR | 0.13 | 0.13 | ||
AICc | 33.66 | 33.66 | ||
AUC | 0.89 | 0.89 |
Parameters, Median Units | Logistic Regression with Validation | Generalized Regression Elastic Net Validation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | |
(Intercept) | −2.48 (−3.50–−1.46) | <0.0001 | −1.96 (−2.63–−1.28) | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrates, ≥123.4 g | 4.66 (3.28–6.04) | <0.0001 | 3.67 (2.72–4.62) | <0.0001 |
MR | 0.13 | 0.13 | ||
AICc | 29.33 | 28.53 | ||
AUC | 0.8733 | 0.8733 |
Parameters, Median Units | Logistic Regression with Validation | Generalized Regression Elastic Net Validation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | Estimate (95% CI) | p (χ2) | |
3 Diet Factors (Final Model) | ||||
(Intercept) | −17.38 (−183.4–148.6) | 0.8374 | −15.81 (−19.00–−12.61) | <0.0001 |
Canned Food Diets | 1.41 (0.45–2.36) | 0.0082 | 2.91 (0.75–5.07) | 0.0082 |
Mexican Diets | 2.91 (0.75–5.07) | 0.8907 | 10.06 (9.10–11.02) | <0.0001 |
Smoothie Diets | 3.80 (1.72–5.89) | 0.0004 | 3.80 (1.72–5.88) | 0.0004 |
MR | 0.20 | 0.20 | ||
AICc | 35.09 | 35.09 | ||
AUC | 0.8125 | 0.8125 | ||
2 HEI and 1 Diet Factors | ||||
(Intercept) | −12.26 (−178.2–153.8) | 0.8849 | −10.85 (−12.09–−9.61) | <0.0001 |
Total Fruits, ≥0.43 cup | 1.59 (0.65–2.53) | 0.0009 | 1.59 (0.65–2.54) | 0.0009 |
Whole Grains, ≥0.41 oz | 1.41 (0.45–2.36) | 0.0039 | 1.41 (0.46–2.36) | 0.0037 |
Mexican Diets | 10.89 (−115.1–176.9) | 0.8977 | 9.48 (8.29–10.66) | <0.0001 |
MR | 0.30 | 0.30 | ||
AICc | 36.33 | 36.33 | ||
AUC | 0.88 | 0.88 |
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Chen, Z.-F.; Kusuma, J.D.; Shiao, S.-Y.P.K. Validating Healthy Eating Index, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load with Modern Diets for E-Health Era. Nutrients 2023, 15, 1263. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051263
Chen Z-F, Kusuma JD, Shiao S-YPK. Validating Healthy Eating Index, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load with Modern Diets for E-Health Era. Nutrients. 2023; 15(5):1263. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051263
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Zhao-Feng, Joyce D. Kusuma, and Shyang-Yun Pamela K. Shiao. 2023. "Validating Healthy Eating Index, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load with Modern Diets for E-Health Era" Nutrients 15, no. 5: 1263. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051263