Food Insecurity across the Life-Course and Cognitive Function among Older Mexican Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Food Insecurity
2.2. Cognitive Function
2.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Approach
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Results
3.2. Regression Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Early Life | Late Life | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food Secure (n = 8084) | Food Insecure (n = 3423) | Food Secure (n = 9890) | Food Insecure (n = 1617) | |||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Sig | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Sig | |
Cognitive Function | ||||||||||
Verbal Learning | 4.9 | 1.2 | 4.5 | 1.2 | *** | 4.8 | 1.2 | 4.6 | 1.2 | *** |
Verbal Recall | 4.4 | 2.1 | 3.8 | 2.2 | *** | 4.2 | 2.1 | 4.0 | 2.2 | *** |
Visual Scanning | 31.1 | 15.8 | 24.6 | 14.7 | *** | 29.9 | 15.8 | 25.1 | 15.0 | *** |
Verbal Fluency | 16.0 | 5.3 | 14.5 | 4.9 | *** | 15.7 | 5.3 | 14.6 | 5.0 | *** |
Demographics | ||||||||||
Age | 65.8 | 9.5 | 67.2 | 9.5 | *** | 66.4 | 9.5 | 65.3 | 9.3 | *** |
Years of Education | 6.7 | 4.9 | 3.9 | 3.6 | *** | 6.2 | 4.8 | 4.1 | 3.6 | *** |
Female (n, %) | 4863 | 60.2 | 1903 | 55.6 | *** | 5783 | 58.5 | 983 | 60.8 | |
Persons in Household | 2.4 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 1.9 | *** | 2.4 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 2.0 | *** |
Low Early Life SES | 1.3 | 1.1 | 2.5 | 1.1 | *** | 1.6 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 1.2 | *** |
Speaks Indigenous Dialect (n, %) | 429 | 5.3 | 377 | 11.0 | *** | 635 | 6.4 | 171 | 10.6 | *** |
Income Decile | 4.6 | 3.1 | 4.1 | 2.7 | *** | 4.6 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 2.6 | *** |
Wealth Decile | 4.7 | 2.9 | 4.1 | 2.8 | *** | 4.7 | 2.8 | 3.6 | 2.8 | *** |
Locality Size | ||||||||||
100,000+ (n, %) | 5152 | 63.7 | 1592 | 46.5 | *** | 5986 | 60.5 | 758 | 46.9 | *** |
15,000–99,999 (n, %) | 1024 | 12.7 | 478 | 14.0 | 1291 | 13.1 | 211 | 13.0 | ||
2500–14,999 (n, %) | 679 | 8.4 | 408 | 11.9 | 883 | 8.9 | 204 | 12.6 | ||
<2500 (n, %) | 1229 | 15.2 | 945 | 27.6 | 1730 | 17.5 | 444 | 27.5 | ||
Marital Status | ||||||||||
Married/Partnered (n, %) | 5377 | 66.5 | 2248 | 65.7 | * | 6605 | 66.8 | 1020 | 63.1 | ** |
Widowed (n, %) | 1491 | 18.4 | 699 | 20.4 | 1860 | 18.8 | 330 | 20.4 | ||
Other (Divorced/Separated/Never) (n, %) | 1216 | 15.0 | 476 | 13.9 | 1425 | 14.4 | 267 | 16.5 | ||
Social Capital | ||||||||||
Can rely on friends/neighbors (n, %) | 4828 | 59.7 | 1938 | 56.6 | ** | 5897 | 59.6 | 869 | 53.7 | *** |
Health Status | ||||||||||
Chronic Condition Count | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.0 | *** | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.0 | *** |
Body Mass Index | ||||||||||
Underweight (n, %) | 86 | 1.1 | 53 | 1.5 | *** | 107 | 1.1 | 32 | 2.0 | *** |
Normal (n, %) | 2095 | 25.9 | 913 | 26.7 | 2600 | 26.3 | 408 | 25.2 | ||
Overweight (n, %) | 3047 | 37.7 | 1153 | 33.7 | 3672 | 37.1 | 528 | 32.7 | ||
Obese (n, %) | 1966 | 24.3 | 750 | 21.9 | 2360 | 23.9 | 356 | 22.0 | ||
Missing (n, %) | 890 | 11.0 | 554 | 16.2 | 1151 | 11.6 | 293 | 18.1 |
Verbal Learning | Verbal Recall | Visual Scanning | Verbal Fluency | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 7 | Model 8 | Model 9 | Model 10 | Model 11 | Model 12 | |
Food Insecurity | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) | β (SE) |
Early-Life | −0.05 * | −0.05 * | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.02 | −0.02 | ||||
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.28) | (0.28) | (0.10) | (0.10) | |||||
Late-Life | −0.01 | −0.00 | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.76 * | −0.76 * | 0.05 | 0.05 | ||||
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.33) | (0.33) | (0.12) | (0.12) | |||||
Covariates | ||||||||||||
Age | −0.04 *** | −0.04 *** | −0.04 *** | −0.07 *** | −0.07 *** | −0.07 *** | −0.54 *** | −0.55 *** | −0.55 *** | −0.12 *** | −0.12 *** | −0.12 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
Female | 0.37 *** | 0.37 *** | 0.37 *** | 0.69 *** | 0.69 *** | 0.69 *** | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.19 | −0.26 ** | −0.26 ** | −0.26 ** |
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.25) | (0.25) | (0.25) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | |
Years of Education | 0.07 *** | 0.07 *** | 0.07 *** | 0.09 *** | 0.09 *** | 0.09 *** | 1.30 *** | 1.30 *** | 1.30 *** | 0.34 *** | 0.34 *** | 0.34 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | |
Locality Size 15,000–99,999 (Ref: 100,000+) | −0.02 | −0.02 | −0.02 | −0.02 | −0.02 | −0.02 | −1.25 *** | −1.25 *** | −1.25 *** | −0.13 | −0.13 | −0.13 |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.34) | (0.34) | (0.34) | (0.13) | (0.13) | (0.13) | |
Locality Size 2500–14,999 (Ref: 100,000+) | −0.11 ** | −0.11 ** | −0.11 ** | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.03 | −3.44 *** | −3.41 *** | −3.41 *** | −0.60 *** | −0.60 *** | −0.60 *** |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.06) | (0.06) | (0.06) | (0.39) | (0.39) | (0.39) | (0.15) | (0.15) | (0.15) | |
Locality Size < 2500 (Ref: 100,000+) | −0.18 *** | −0.18 *** | −0.18 *** | −0.18 *** | −0.18 *** | −0.18 *** | −4.23 *** | −4.21 *** | −4.21 *** | −0.58 *** | −0.59 *** | −0.58 *** |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.32) | (0.32) | (0.32) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.12) | |
Widowed (Ref: Married/Partnered) | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | −1.33 *** | −1.31 *** | −1.31 *** | −0.18 | −0.18 | −0.18 |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.33) | (0.33) | (0.33) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.12) | |
Div/Sep/Never (Ref: Married/Partnered) | −0.05 | −0.05 | −0.05 | −0.06 | −0.06 | −0.05 | −0.98 ** | −0.95 ** | −0.95 ** | −0.38 ** | −0.38 ** | −0.38 ** |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.33) | (0.33) | (0.33) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.13) | |
Can Rely on Others | 0.10 *** | 0.10 *** | 0.10 *** | 0.17 *** | 0.17 *** | 0.17 *** | 0.55 * | 0.54 * | 0.54 * | 0.45 *** | 0.46 *** | 0.46 *** |
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.22) | (0.22) | (0.22) | (0.08) | (0.08) | (0.08) | |
Residents in Home | −0.01 * | −0.01 * | −0.01 * | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.35 *** | −0.34 *** | −0.34 *** | −0.06 * | −0.06 * | −0.06 * |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.06) | (0.06) | (0.06) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
Low Early Life SES | −0.02 * | −0.03 *** | −0.02 * | −0.04 * | −0.05 ** | −0.04 * | −0.44 *** | −0.43 *** | −0.43 *** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.11) | (0.10) | (0.11) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
Speaks Indigenous Dialect | −0.19 *** | −0.19 *** | −0.19 *** | −0.05 | −0.05 | −0.05 | −3.06 *** | −3.05 *** | −3.05 *** | −1.44 *** | −1.44 *** | −1.44 *** |
(0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.07) | (0.07) | (0.07) | (0.45) | (0.45) | (0.45) | (0.17) | (0.17) | (0.17) | |
Income Decile | 0.02 *** | 0.02 *** | 0.02 *** | 0.01 * | 0.01 * | 0.01 * | 0.27 *** | 0.26 *** | 0.26 *** | 0.09 *** | 0.09 *** | 0.09 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
Wealth Decile | 0.01 * | 0.01 * | 0.01 * | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.24 *** | 0.23 *** | 0.23 *** | 0.05 *** | 0.05 *** | 0.05 *** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | |
Chronic Condition Count | −0.02 | −0.02 * | −0.02 | −0.06 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.06 ** | −0.96 *** | −0.95 *** | −0.95 *** | −0.22 *** | −0.22 *** | −0.22 *** |
(0.01) | (0.01) | (0.01) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | |
BMI: Underweight (Ref: Normal) | −0.15 | −0.16 | −0.15 | −0.33 * | −0.33 * | −0.33 * | −3.58 ** | −3.52 ** | −3.52 ** | −1.15 ** | −1.16 ** | −1.15 ** |
(0.09) | (0.09) | (0.09) | (0.16) | (0.16) | (0.16) | (1.12) | (1.12) | (1.12) | (0.39) | (0.39) | (0.39) | |
BMI: Overweight (Ref: Normal) | 0.09 *** | 0.09 *** | 0.09 *** | 0.09 * | 0.09 * | 0.09 * | 1.09 *** | 1.09 *** | 1.09 *** | 0.29 ** | 0.29 ** | 0.29 ** |
(0.02) | (0.02) | (0.02) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.28) | (0.28) | (0.28) | (0.11) | (0.11) | (0.11) | |
BMI: Obese (Ref: Normal) | 0.14 *** | 0.14 *** | 0.14 *** | 0.11 * | 0.11 * | 0.11 * | 1.40 *** | 1.39 *** | 1.39 *** | 0.57 *** | 0.57 *** | 0.57 *** |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.05) | (0.32) | (0.32) | (0.32) | (0.12) | (0.12) | (0.12) | |
BMI: Missing (Ref: Normal) | −0.20 *** | −0.20 *** | −0.20 *** | −0.50 *** | −0.50 *** | −0.50 *** | −2.88 *** | −2.86 *** | −2.86 *** | −0.99 *** | −1.00 *** | −1.00 *** |
(0.03) | (0.03) | (0.03) | (0.06) | (0.06) | (0.06) | (0.40) | (0.40) | (0.40) | (0.15) | (0.15) | (0.15) | |
Observations | 11,474 | 11,474 | 11,474 | 11,453 | 11,453 | 11,453 | 10,765 | 10,765 | 10,765 | 11,479 | 11,479 | 11,479 |
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Saenz, J.L.; Kessler, J.; Nelson, E. Food Insecurity across the Life-Course and Cognitive Function among Older Mexican Adults. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071462
Saenz JL, Kessler J, Nelson E. Food Insecurity across the Life-Course and Cognitive Function among Older Mexican Adults. Nutrients. 2022; 14(7):1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071462
Chicago/Turabian StyleSaenz, Joseph L., Jamie Kessler, and Ehlana Nelson. 2022. "Food Insecurity across the Life-Course and Cognitive Function among Older Mexican Adults" Nutrients 14, no. 7: 1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071462
APA StyleSaenz, J. L., Kessler, J., & Nelson, E. (2022). Food Insecurity across the Life-Course and Cognitive Function among Older Mexican Adults. Nutrients, 14(7), 1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071462