Dietary Plant Protein Intake Can Reduce Maternal Insulin Resistance during Pregnancy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Estimation of Dietary Intakes
2.3. Assessment of Glucose Homeostasis Indicators
2.4. Adjustment of Covariates
2.5. Animal Experiment
2.6. Laboratory Testing of Animal Experiment
2.7. Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Study Population
3.2. Results of the Population Study
3.3. Results of the Animal Experiment
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Component (g/kg) a | 100% Animal Protein | 50% Animal Protein | 100% Plant Protein |
---|---|---|---|
Total energy (kcal/kg) a | 3832.48 | 3832.48 | 3832.48 |
Protein | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 |
Fat | 70.00 | 70.00 | 70.00 |
Carbohydrates | 600.62 | 600.62 | 600.62 |
Dietary fiber | 50.00 | 50.00 | 50.00 |
Milk protein concentrate | 241.08 | 120.54 | - |
Soy protein isolate | - | 110.07 | 220.14 |
L-cystine | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 |
Corn starch | 360.35 | 361.67 | 362.98 |
Maltodextrin | 132.00 | 132.00 | 132.00 |
Sucrose | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
Cellulose | 50.00 | 49.86 | 49.71 |
Oil | 66.07 | 68.01 | 69.96 |
Mineral mix | 35.00 | 35.00 | 35.00 |
Vitamin mix | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 |
Choline bitartrate | 2.50 | 2.50 | 2.50 |
BHT b | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Distilled water | 0.00 | 7.35 | 14.70 |
Characteristics | n (%) | GLU (mmol/L) | INS (pmol/L) | HOMA-IR |
---|---|---|---|---|
All subjects | 1034 (100) | 4.61 (4.31, 4.96) | 57.0 (38.6, 94.4) | 2.01 (1.31, 3.29) |
pre-pregnancy BMI | ||||
<18.5 | 22 (2.1) | 4.28 (3.98, 4.59) c | 29.7 (19.6, 44.8) c | 0.88 (0.60, 1.55) c |
18.5–23.9 | 193 (18.7) | 4.56 (4.29, 4.84) c | 46.9 (34.1, 74.2) c | 1.60 (1.14, 2.41) c |
≥24.0 | 252 (24.4) | 4.70 (4.37, 5.05) c | 69.4 (47.2, 107.6) c | 2.32 (1.65, 3.84) c |
Gestation period | ||||
First | 150 (14.5) | 4.76 (4.55, 5.05) c | 48.4 (37.0, 89.0) c | 1.77 (1.29, 3.18) c |
Second | 305 (29.5) | 4.49 (4.22, 4.84) c | 53.5 (37.2, 84.4) c | 1.84 (1.19, 2.65) c |
Third | 277 (26.8) | 4.47 (4.22, 4.79) c | 73.6 (53.6, 108.9) c | 2.40 (1.81, 3.76) c |
Parity | ||||
Primiparous | 42 (4.1) | 4.71 (4.54, 5.02) | 49.2 (39.1, 72.1) | 1.76 (1.26, 2.56) |
Non-primiparous | 675 (65.3) | 4.61 (4.31, 4.95) | 55.2 (38.8, 87.0) | 1.91 (1.30, 2.91) |
Age | ||||
20–24 | 320 (30.9) | 4.51 (4.22, 4.88) c | 62.1 (40.1, 100.7) c | 2.15 (1.37, 3.43) |
25–29 | 313 (30.3) | 4.59 (4.34, 4.86) c | 62.0 (39.8, 89.9) c | 2.03 (1.30, 3.28) |
30–34 | 257 (24.9) | 4.65 (4.31, 5.11) c | 61.0 (38.3, 98.2) c | 2.18 (1.35, 3.68) |
35–39 | 122 (11.8) | 4.78 (4.53, 5.11) c | 48.1 (33.2, 62.8) c | 1.80 (1.14, 2.33) |
40–44 | 22 (2.1) | 4.83 (4.59, 5.11) c | 37.4 (28.7, 50.5) c | 1.28 (1.02, 1.83) |
Race | ||||
Mexican | 250 (24.4) | 4.63 (4.27, 5.03) | 66.6 (45.5, 102.5) c | 2.22 (1.56, 3.63) c |
Other Hispanic | 73 (7.1) | 4.69 (4.38, 5.00) | 70.4 (48.8, 100.7) c | 2.31 (1.81, 3.28) c |
Non-Hispanic White | 445 (43.5) | 4.61 (4.33, 4.88) | 50.3 (33.3, 79.1) c | 1.77 (1.12, 2.69) c |
Non-Hispanic Black | 165 (16.1) | 4.57 (4.23, 4.98) | 62.0 (40.1, 97.3) c | 2.10 (1.32, 3.47) c |
Other race | 101 (9.9) | 4.66 (4.38, 5.11) | 58.8 (39.2, 88.1) c | 2.09 (1.25, 3.28) c |
Education | ||||
Less than 9th grade | 76 (7.4) | 4.61 (4.23, 4.94) | 53.5 (40.6, 90.8) | 1.90 (1.32, 3.28) |
9–11th grade | 176 (17.0) | 4.57 (4.28, 4.86) | 66.7 (46.9, 104.1) | 2.28 (1.69, 3.53) |
High school graduate | 214 (20.7) | 4.62 (4.31, 5.00) | 62.1 (40.1, 104.5) | 2.19 (1.37, 3.76) |
AA degree | 294 (28.4) | 4.63 (4.33, 4.91) | 55.6 (37.9, 91.3) | 1.96 (1.27, 3.13) |
College graduate or above | 273 (26.4) | 4.61 (4.33, 5.00) | 53.2 (33.4, 80.6) | 1.83 (1.10, 2.76) |
Family income b | ||||
<1.00 | 244 (23.6) | 4.61 (4.31, 4.94) | 55.6 (39.2, 90.6) | 1.98 (1.32, 3.15) |
1.00–2.99 | 213 (20.6) | 4.61 (4.28, 5.00) | 56.0 (39.1, 94.5) | 1.90 (1.31, 3.32) |
3.00–4.99 | 129 (12.5) | 4.59 (4.35, 4.93) | 62.2 (40.9, 91.5) | 2.09 (1.31, 3.37) |
≥5.00 | 177 (17.1) | 4.64 (4.35, 5.05) | 49.2 (33.3, 81.6) | 1.75 (1.10, 2.90) |
Variables | GLU | INS | HOMA-IR | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total protein intake | Model 1 a | β (95%CI) | 0.01 (−0.06, 0.08) | 8.74 (−4.58, 22.07) | 0.46 (−0.19, 1.10) |
p-value | 0.724 | 0.198 | 0.168 | ||
Model 2 b | β (95%CI) | −0.01 (−0.08, 0.06) | 5.47 (−11.85, 22.78) | 0.28 (−0.56, 1.12) | |
p-value | 0.704 | 0.535 | 0.513 |
Variables | GLU (mmol/L) | INS (mIU/L) | HOMA-IR | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
animal protein intake | Model 1 a | β (95%CI) | −0.09 (−0.16, −0.02) | 7.31 (−6.02, 20.65) | 0.31 (−0.34, 0.96) |
p-value | 0.015 | 0.282 | 0.351 | ||
Model 2 b | β (95%CI) | −0.06 (−0.13, 0.01) | 3.49 (−14.12, 21.10) | 0.20 (−0.67, 1.05) | |
p-value | 0.103 | 0.696 | 0.667 | ||
plant protein intake | Model 1 a | β (95%CI) | −0.03 (−0.10, 0.04) | −18.73 (−31.97, −5.49) | −0.96 (−1.60, −0.32) |
p-value | 0.398 | 0.006 | 0.004 | ||
Model 2 b | β (95%CI) | 0.00 (−0.06, 0.07) | −20.60 (−37.91, −3.30) | −1.04 (−1.89, −0.20) | |
p-value | 0.892 | 0.020 | 0.015 | ||
AP ratio | Model 1 a | β (95%CI) | −0.03 (−0.10, 0.04) | 12.39 (−0.91, 25.69) | 0.63 (−0.02, 1.27) |
p-value | 0.360 | 0.068 | 0.058 | ||
Model 2 b | β (95%CI) | −0.05 (−0.12, 0.02) | 13.91 (−3.66, 31.48) | 0.73 (−0.13, 1.59) | |
p-value | 0.175 | 0.120 | 0.096 |
Variables | Gestation Period | INS (mIU/L) | HOMA-IR | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Plant protein intake | First trimester | β (95%CI) | −26.23 (−60.73, 8.27) | −1.25 (−2.88, 0.39) |
p-value | 0.133 | 0.133 | ||
Second trimester | β (95%CI) | −4.03 (−19.77, 11.71) | −0.19 (−0.81, 0.43) | |
p-value | 0.614 | 0.541 | ||
Third trimester | β (95%CI) | −38.47 (−76.99, 0.04) | −2.10 (−4.04, −0.15) | |
p-value | 0.050 | 0.035 | ||
AP ratio | First trimester | β (95%CI) | 18.69 (−15.97, 53.34) | 0.93 (−0.70, −2.57) |
p-value | 0.285 | 0.258 | ||
Second trimester | β (95%CI) | 3.96 (−11.53, −19.45) | 0.12 (−0.50, 0.73) | |
p-value | 0.614 | 0.707 | ||
Third trimester | β (95%CI) | 36.76 (−2.06, 75.57) | 1.96 (0.01, 3.91) | |
p-value | 0.063 | 0.048 |
Group | 100% Animal Protein Mean ± sd | 50% Animal Protein Mean ± sd | 100% Plant Protein Mean ± sd | p for ANOVA | p for Trend |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GLU (mmol/L) | 6.40 ± 2.15 | 6.25 ± 1.11 | 5.61 ± 1.74 | 0.557 | 0.314 |
INS (mIU/L) | 20.83 ± 5.62 | 15.09 ± 4.60 | 10.88 ± 4.91 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
HOMA-IR | 6.06 ± 2.85 | 4.22 ± 1.49 | 2.63 ± 1.42 | 0.007 | 0.002 |
Metabolites | log2FC a | p-Value | VIP |
---|---|---|---|
L-Tyrosine | −9.19 | <0.000 | 1.55 |
L-Histidine | −5.37 | <0.000 | 1.55 |
L-asparagine | −4.73 | <0.000 | 1.55 |
5-Aminolevulinic acid | −7.41 | <0.000 | 1.55 |
Phenylalanine | −6.43 | <0.000 | 1.55 |
Glutamine | −3.41 | <0.000 | 1.55 |
Threonine | −2.71 | <0.000 | 1.54 |
Succinic acid | −2.04 | <0.000 | 1.50 |
N-Acetylaspartate | −6.99 | <0.000 | 1.50 |
2-hydroxy-6-methylisonicotinic acid | 3.97 | <0.000 | 1.50 |
N, N-Dimethylarginine | 6.42 | <0.000 | 1.49 |
Arginine | 6.14 | <0.000 | 1.49 |
Gly | 3.85 | <0.000 | 1.46 |
1-Methylhistamine | −3.80 | <0.000 | 1.45 |
Pantothenate | −7.00 | <0.000 | 1.45 |
L-Leucine | −5.49 | <0.000 | 1.44 |
L-Glutamic acid | −3.63 | <0.000 | 1.43 |
L-Citrulline | 3.87 | <0.000 | 1.43 |
D-Glucosamine-6-phosphate | 6.71 | <0.000 | 1.42 |
N-Methyl-L-proline | 5.80 | <0.000 | 1.37 |
Glutamic acid | 1.97 | <0.000 | 1.35 |
Thiamine | 3.98 | <0.000 | 1.33 |
Lysine | 6.59 | <0.000 | 1.33 |
Riboflavin | 5.29 | <0.000 | 1.30 |
N8-Acetylspermidine | 3.27 | <0.000 | 1.30 |
Pathway Name | KEGG Pathway ID | Adjusted p-Value |
---|---|---|
Biosynthesis of amino acids | rno01230 | <0.000 |
Alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism | rno00250 | <0.000 |
GABAergic synapse | rno04727 | <0.000 |
Arginine biosynthesis | rno00220 | 0.000 |
FoxO signaling pathway | rno04068 | 0.000 |
Glutamatergic synapse | rno04724 | 0.002 |
Glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism | rno00630 | 0.003 |
Prolactin signaling pathway | rno04917 | 0.004 |
Histidine metabolism | rno00340 | 0.005 |
D-Glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism | rno00471 | 0.006 |
Glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism | rno00260 | 0.006 |
mTOR signaling pathway | rno04150 | 0.007 |
Tyrosine metabolism | rno00350 | 0.008 |
Phenylalanine metabolism | rno00360 | 0.012 |
Pyrimidine metabolism | rno00240 | 0.014 |
Purine metabolism | rno00230 | 0.015 |
Bile secretion | rno04976 | 0.016 |
Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism | rno00430 | 0.016 |
cAMP signaling pathway | rno04024 | 0.022 |
Cholesterol metabolism | rno04979 | 0.028 |
Phospholipase D signaling pathway | rno04072 | 0.032 |
Thiamine metabolism | rno00730 | 0.033 |
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Hong, Y.; Yang, C.; Zhong, J.; Hou, Y.; Xie, K.; Wang, L. Dietary Plant Protein Intake Can Reduce Maternal Insulin Resistance during Pregnancy. Nutrients 2022, 14, 5039. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235039
Hong Y, Yang C, Zhong J, Hou Y, Xie K, Wang L. Dietary Plant Protein Intake Can Reduce Maternal Insulin Resistance during Pregnancy. Nutrients. 2022; 14(23):5039. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235039
Chicago/Turabian StyleHong, Yuting, Chen Yang, Jinjing Zhong, Yanmei Hou, Kui Xie, and Linlin Wang. 2022. "Dietary Plant Protein Intake Can Reduce Maternal Insulin Resistance during Pregnancy" Nutrients 14, no. 23: 5039. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14235039