The Risk of Cardiovascular Disease According to Chewing Status Could Be Modulated by Healthy Diet in Middle-Aged Koreans
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Subjects and Methods
2.1. Data Resources and Subjects Selects
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Chewing Status
2.2.2. Sociodemographic Characteristics
2.2.3. Korean Health Eating Index
2.2.4. Factors of Cardiovascular Disease Risk (CVD) and Definitions of 10-Year Estimated CVD Risk
2.3. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Risk Factors | β | P Value | HR | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Men | ||||
Log of Age | 3.06117 | <0.001 | 21.35 | (14.03–32.48) |
Log of total cholesterol | 1.12370 | <0.001 | 3.08 | (2.05–4.62) |
Log of HDL cholesterol | −0.93263 | <0.001 | 0.39 | (0.30–0.52) |
Log of SBP if not treated | 1.93303 | <0.001 | 6.91 | (3.91–12.20) |
Log of SBP if treated | 1.99881 | <0.001 | 7.38 | (4.22–12.92) |
Smoking status | 0.65451 | <0.001 | 1.92 | (1.65–2.24) |
Diabetes mellitus | 0.57367 | <0.001 | 1.78 | (1.43–2.20) |
Women | ||||
Log of Age | 2.32888 | <0.001 | 10.27 | (5.65–18.64) |
Log of total cholesterol | 1.20904 | <0.001 | 3.35 | (2.00–5.62) |
Log of HDL cholesterol | −0.70833 | <0.001 | 0.49 | (0.35–0.69) |
Log of SBP if not treated | 2.76157 | <0.001 | 15.82 | (7.86–31.87) |
Log of SBP if treated | 2.82263 | <0.001 | 16.82 | (8.46–33.46) |
Smoking status | 0.52873 | <0.001 | 1.70 | (1.40–2.06) |
Diabetes mellitus | 0.69154 | <0.001 | 2.00 | (1.49–2.67) |
30~49 Years (n = 5159) | 50~64 Years (n = 4252) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CD (n = 541) | NCD (n = 4618) | p Value * | CD (n = 1129) | NCD (n = 3123) | p Value * | |
Gender, men | 55.5 (2.3) | 50.0 (0.7) | 0.044 | 53.0 (1.6) | 47.7 (1.0) | 0.008 |
Education level, ≥high school | 9.9 (0.5) | 90.1 (0.5) | <0.001 | 20.5 (0.9) | 79.5 (0.9) | <0.001 |
Household income, high | 58.0 (2.5) | 72.2 (1.0) | <0.001 | 57.2 (1.9) | 70.8 (1.2) | <0.001 |
Regular drinker, yes | 67.5 (2.5) | 66.6 (0.8) | 0.737 | 56.9 (1.7) | 53.7 (1.0) | 0.106 |
Aerobic physical activity, yes | 44.9 (2.6) | 49.5 (0.9) | 0.102 | 37.5 (1.8) | 44.4 (1.1) | 0.001 |
Perceived stress, low | 60.7 (2.3) | 70.3 (0.8) | <0.001 | 67.8 (1.7) | 79.5 (0.9) | <0.001 |
30~49 Years (n = 5159) | 50~64 Year (n = 4252) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CD | NCD | p Value * | CD | NCD | p Value * | |
(n = 541) | (n = 4618) | (n = 1129) | (n = 3123) | |||
Age, year | 41.54 (40.99–42.10) | 39.84 (39.61–40.07) | <0.001 | 56.99 (56.70–57.29) | 56.19 (56.00–56.37) | <0.001 |
TC, mg/dL | 193.00 (189.81–196.19) | 196.83 (195.60–198.05) | 0.026 | 198.53 (195.75–201.30) | 199.60 (197.89–201.30) | 0.504 |
HDL-C, mg/dL | 50.22 (49.05–51.40) | 51.85 (51.41–52.29) | 0.013 | 50.37 (49.44–51.29) | 50.69 (50.12–51.26) | 0.562 |
SBP, mmHg | 114.04 (112.60–115.47) | 113.24 (112.71–113.76) | 0.279 | 122.52 (121.29–123.76) | 120.55 (119.84–121.26) | 0.006 |
BP treatment, % | 5.3 (1.1) | 4.6 (0.4) | 0.517 | 25.3 (1.6) | 24.1 (0.8) | 0.503 |
Smoking status, % | 36.4 (2.5) | 23.0 (0.8) | <0.001 | 29.2 (1.8) | 17.3 (0.9) | <0.001 |
DM diagnosis, % | 2.3 (0.7) | 2.0 (0.2) | 0.690 | 12.1 (1.2) | 9.9 (0.6) | 0.093 |
10-year estimated CVD risk, % | 8.71 (7.54–9.87) | 6.84 (6.46–7.22) | 0.003 | 30.38 (28.12–32.65) | 26.42 (25.31–27.54) | 0.003 |
Intermediate/high for CVD risk ** | 23.1 (2.1) | 15.9 (0.6) | <0.001 | 65.4 (1.7) | 57.9 (1.0) | 0.002 |
Scoring | 30~49 Years (n = 5159) | 50~64 Years (n = 4252) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CD (n = 541) | NCD (n = 4618) | p Value * | CD (n = 1129) | NCD (n = 3123) | p Value * | ||
Have breakfast | 0–10 | 5.98 (5.55–6.41) | 6.26 (6.10–6.42) | 0.217 | 8.07 (7.83–8.31) | 8.40 (8.25–8.55) | 0.019 |
Mixed grains intake | 0–5 | 1.56 (1.37–1.74) | 1.65 (1.58–1.73) | 0.318 | 2.15 (2.00–2.30) | 2.29 (2.19–2.38) | 0.105 |
Total fruits intake | 0–5 | 1.55 (1.34–1.76) | 1.96 (1.88–2.04) | <0.001 | 2.33 (2.17–2.49) | 2.75 (2.65–2.85) | <0.001 |
Fresh fruits intake | 0–5 | 1.66 (1.43–1.90) | 2.20 (2.11–2.29) | <0.001 | 2.62 (2.45–2.79) | 2.99 (2.88–3.09) | <0.001 |
Total vegetables intake | 0–5 | 3.52 (3.38–3.66) | 3.50 (3.45–3.55) | 0.803 | 3.60 (3.49–3.72) | 3.80 (3.74–3.87) | 0.002 |
Vegetables intake excluding Kimchi and pickled vegetables intake | 0–5 | 3.14 (2.98–3.31) | 3.22 (3.16–3.27) | 0.416 | 3.19 (3.07–3.32) | 3.44 (3.37–3.51) | <0.001 |
Meat, fish, eggs and beans intake | 0–10 | 7.14 (6.84–7.45) | 7.59 (7.49–7.69) | 0.006 | 6.31 (6.08–6.54) | 7.02 (6.88–7.16) | <0.001 |
Milk and milk products intake | 0–10 | 3.20 (2.75–3.64) | 3.34 (3.19–3.50) | 0.535 | 3.00 (2.68–3.31) | 3.37 (3.16–3.58) | 0.043 |
Percentage of energy from saturated fatty acid | 0–10 | 6.79 (6.39–7.19) | 6.78 (6.64–6.93) | 0.957 | 8.37 (8.15–8.59) | 8.08 (7.92–8.23) | 0.029 |
Sodium intake | 0–10 | 6.32 (6.00–6.64) | 6.31 (6.19–6.43) | 0.946 | 6.97 (6.71–7.22) | 6.68 (6.53–6.82) | 0.050 |
Percentage of energy from Sweets and beverages | 0–10 | 9.08 (8.99–9.16) | 8.82 (8.54–9.10) | 0.079 | 9.29 (9.15–9.44) | 9.44 (9.37–9.52) | 0.066 |
Percentage of energy from carbohydrate | 0–5 | 2.95 (2.75–3.16) | 2.91 (2.85–2.99) | 0.696 | 2.30 (2.15–2.45) | 2.46 (2.38–2.55) | 0.068 |
Percentage of energy from fat | 0–5 | 3.70 (3.51–3.90) | 3.68 (3.61–3.75) | 0.851 | 3.26 (3.11–3.41) | 3.41 (3.32–3.50) | 0.093 |
Energy Intake | 0–5 | 3.09 (2.89–3.29) | 3.16 (3.09–3.23) | 0.518 | 3.12 (2.96–3.27) | 3.16 (3.07–3.25) | 0.568 |
Total score of KHEI | 59.42 (57.98–60.87) | 61.64 (61.13–62.14) | 0.004 | 64.56 (63.63–65.50) | 67.29 (66.71–67.87) | <0.001 |
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Chun, H.; Oh, J.; Doo, M. The Risk of Cardiovascular Disease According to Chewing Status Could Be Modulated by Healthy Diet in Middle-Aged Koreans. Nutrients 2022, 14, 3849. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14183849
Chun H, Oh J, Doo M. The Risk of Cardiovascular Disease According to Chewing Status Could Be Modulated by Healthy Diet in Middle-Aged Koreans. Nutrients. 2022; 14(18):3849. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14183849
Chicago/Turabian StyleChun, Hyejin, Jongchul Oh, and Miae Doo. 2022. "The Risk of Cardiovascular Disease According to Chewing Status Could Be Modulated by Healthy Diet in Middle-Aged Koreans" Nutrients 14, no. 18: 3849. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14183849