How Does Being Overweight Moderate Associations between Diet and Blood Pressure in Male Adolescents?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Recruitment
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Demographics
2.5. Dietary Habits and Intake
2.6. Anthropometry
2.7. Blood Pressure
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Age Group | Weight Status | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
15 to <17 Years (n = 66) | 17 to <18 Years (n = 31) | p-Value a | Not Overweight (n = 64) | Overweight (n = 33) | p-Value a | |
Age, years | 16.2 (0.5) | 17.5 (0.3) | - | 16.6 (0.8) | 16.7 (0.6) | 0.541 |
Age group, n (%) | - | 0.502 | ||||
15 to <17 years | 66 (100) | 0 | 45 (68.2) | 21 (31.8) | ||
17 to <18 years | 0 | 31 (100) | 19 (61.3) | 12 (38.7) | ||
Deprivation, n (%) | 0.961 | 0.003 | ||||
Low | 22 (66.7) | 11 (33.3) | 25 (75.8) | 8 (24.2) | ||
Medium | 30 (69.8)) | 13 (30.2) | 32 (74.4) | 11 (24.6) | ||
High | 14 (66.7) | 7 (33.3) | 7 (33.3) | 14 (66.7) | ||
Ethnicity, n (%) | 0.406 | 0.350 | ||||
NZEO | 36 (64.3) | 20 (35.7) | 36 (64.3) | 20 (35.7) | ||
Māori | 6 (60.0) | 4 (40.0) | 5 (50.0) | 5 (50.0) | ||
Asian | 24 (77.4) | 7 (22.6) | 23 (74.2) | 8 (25.8) | ||
BMI z-score, mean (SD) | 0.36 (1.10) | 0.60 (1.20) | 0.323 | -0.21 (0.70) | 1.69 (0.64) | - |
Weight status, n (%) | 0.502 | - | ||||
Not overweight | 45 (70.3) | 19 (29.7) | 64 (100) | 0 | ||
Overweight | 21 (63.6) | 12 (36.4) | 0 | 33 (100) | ||
Dietary habits b, mean (SD) serves per day | ||||||
Fruit | 1.4 (1.1) | 1.5 (1.1) | 0.816 | 1.3 (1.0) | 1.6 (1.2) | 0.371 |
Vegetables | 1.5 (1.1) | 1.8 (1.2) | 0.173 | 1.5 (1.1) | 1.8 (1.4) | 0.174 |
Milk | 1.2 (1.0) | 1.5 (1.3) | 0.233 | 1.2 (1.1) | 1.5 (1.1) | 0.121 |
Meat | 2.0 (1.2) | 2.5 (1.2) | 0.052 | 2.1 (1.3) | 2.3 (1.0) | 0.461 |
Plant protein c | 1.4 (1.3) | 1.5 (1.4) | 0.849 | 1.5 (1.2) | 1.4 (1.5) | 0.712 |
Sweet drinks d | 1.0 (1.4) | 1.2 (2.0) | 0.648 | 1.0 (1.3) | 1.2 (2.1) | 0.615 |
Snacks e | 2.1 (2.0) | 1.8 (1.4) | 0.400 | 2.0 (1.7) | 1.9 (2.1) | 0.656 |
Daily dietary intake f | N = 56 | N = 32 | N = 58 | N = 30 | ||
Energy, MJ | 10.4 (4.0) | 11.3 (3.7) | 0.274 | 10.1 (2.7) | 11.8 (5.5) | 0.055 |
Protein, % energy | 18.0 (3.4) | 18.7 (2.7) | 0.311 | 18.3 (3.1) | 18.3 (3.3) | 0.976 |
Fat, % energy | 37.9 (6.6) | 37.0 (4.9) | 0.505 | 37.3 (6.3) | 38.0 (5.6) | 0.630 |
Carbohydrate, % energy | 46.0 (7.2) | 45.0 (6.1) | 0.519 | 46.2 (6.5) | 44.5 (7.4) | 0.272 |
Fibre, g | 24.3 (9.9) | 28.4 (12.9) | 0.105 | 25.2 (9.8) | 27.0 (13.7) | 0.476 |
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Variable | N (%) a | Range |
---|---|---|
Age, mean (SD) years | 16.6 (0.7) | 15.0 to 17.9 |
Deprivation b, mean (SD) | 4.9 (2.6) | 1 to 10 |
Low | 34 (32.7) | |
Medium | 47 (45.2) | |
High | 23 (22.1) | |
Ethnicity | 104 participants responded to this question | |
Māori | 10 (9.6) | |
Pacific | 3 (2.9) | |
Asian | 35 (33.7) | |
NZEO c | 56 (53.9) | |
BMI z-score d, mean (SD) | 0.45 (1.10) | −1.88 to 3.42 |
Weight status d | ||
Healthy weight | 72 (66.7) | |
Overweight | 30 (27.8) | |
Obese | 6 (5.6) | |
Systolic blood pressure, mean (SD) mmHg | 124 (12) | 88 to 154 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mean (SD) mmHg | 65 (9) | 45 to 89 |
Elevated blood pressure e | 63 (58.3) | |
Hypertensive e | 40 (37.0) |
n | Mean (SD) | Mean Difference (95% CI) a, mmHg | p-Value | Adjusted Mean Difference (95% CI) a, mmHg | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Systolic blood pressure | ||||||
Dietary habits b, serves per day | ||||||
Fruit | 97 | 1.4 (1.1) | −2.2 (−4.3, −0.1) | 0.040 | −2.4 (−4.0, −0.7) | 0.005 |
Vegetables | 97 | 1.6 (1.2) | 0.1 (−1.9, 2.1) | 0.935 | −0.7 (−2.4, 0.9) | 0.370 |
Milk | 97 | 1.3 (1.1) | −0.6 (−2.8, 1.6) | 0.573 | −0.7 (−2.5, 1.0) | 0.410 |
Meat | 96 | 2.2 (1.2) | −0.4 (−2.4, 1.6) | 0.702 | −1.3 (−2.9, 0.3) | 0.110 |
Plant protein c | 96 | 1.5 (1.3) | 0.8 (−0.9, 2.6) | 0.352 | 0.7 (−0.7, 2.1) | 0.352 |
Sweet drinks d | 97 | 1.1 (1.6) | 0.4 (−1.0, 1.9) | 0.574 | 0.4 (−0.9, 1.7) | 0.519 |
Snacks e | 97 | 2.0 (1.8) | −1.3 (−2.5, −0.04) | 0.043 | −0.3 (−1.4, 0.7) | 0.532 |
Daily dietary intake f | ||||||
Energy, MJ | 88 | 10.7 (3.9) | −0.2 (−0.9, 0.5) | 0.627 | −0.1 (−0.7, 0.5) | 0.693 |
Protein, % energy | 88 | 18.3 (3.2) | 0.1 (−0.7, 1.0) | 0.736 | −0.2 (−0.9, 0.5) | 0.517 |
Fat, % energy | 88 | 37.6 (6.0) | 0.0 (−0.4, 0.4) | 0.998 | −0.1 (−0.5, 0.3) | 0.562 |
Carbohydrate, % energy | 88 | 45.6 (6.8) | −0.2 (−0.6, 0.2) | 0.393 | 0.1 (−0.3, 0.4) | 0.685 |
Fibre, g | 88 | 25.8 (11.2) | −0.1 (−0.3, 0.2) | 0.506 | −0.2 (−0.5, 0.2) | 0.308 |
Diastolic blood pressure | ||||||
Dietary habits b, serves per day | ||||||
Fruit | 97 | 1.4 (1.1) | −2.5 (−4.0, −0.9) | 0.002 | −2.5 (−3.9, −1.1) | 0.001 |
Vegetables | 97 | 1.6 (1.2) | −1.1 (−2.6, 0.5) | 0.174 | −1.4 (−2.8, −0.02) | 0.047 |
Milk | 97 | 1.3 (1.1) | −2.2 (−3.9, −0.6) | 0.007 | −2.2 (−3.6, −0.8) | 0.003 |
Meat | 96 | 2.2 (1.2) | −0.4 (−1.9, 1.2) | 0.629 | −1.2 (−2.6, 0.2) | 0.083 |
Plant protein c | 96 | 1.5 (1.3) | 1.4 (0.01, 2.7) | 0.048 | 1.1 (−0.04, 2.3) | 0.058 |
Sweet drinks d | 97 | 1.1 (1.6) | 0.3 (−0.8, 1.5) | 0.567 | 0.2 (−0.9, 1.3) | 0.701 |
Snacks e | 97 | 2.0 (1.8) | −0.9 (−1.9, 0.1) | 0.066 | −0.3 (−1.2, 0.6) | 0.549 |
Daily dietary intake f | ||||||
Energy, MJ | 88 | 10.7 (3.9) | −0.4 (−1.0, 0.1) | 0.102 | −0.5 (−1.0, −0.04) | 0.034 |
Protein, % energy | 88 | 18.3 (3.2) | 0.4 (−0.2, 1.0) | 0.210 | 0.2 (−0.3, 0.8) | 0.378 |
Fat, % energy | 88 | 37.6 (6.0) | 0.1 (−0.2, 0.5) | 0.412 | 0.1 (−0.2, 0.4) | 0.439 |
Carbohydrate, % energy | 88 | 45.6 (6.8) | −0.3 (−0.6, 0.02) | 0.065 | −0.2 (−0.5, 0.1) | 0.144 |
Fibre, g | 88 | 25.8 (11.2) | −0.2 (−0.4, −0.01) | 0.037 | −0.2 (−0.5, 0.0) | 0.074 |
Not Hypertensive (n = 62) | Hypertensive (n = 35) | Odds Ratio (95% CI) a | p-Value | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) a | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age, years | 16.5 (0.7) | 16.9 (0.6) | 2.62 (1.72, 3.99) | <0.001 | 3.16 (2.39, 4.19) | <0.001 |
Age group, n (%) | ||||||
15 to <17 years | 48 (72.7) | 18 (27.3) | Reference | Reference | ||
17 to <18 years | 14 (45.2) | 17 (54.8) | 3.24 (1.62, 6.47) | 0.001 | 3.54 (1.61, 7.84) | 0.002 |
Deprivation, n (%) | ||||||
Low | 24 (72.7) | 9 (27.3) | Reference | Reference | ||
Medium | 27 (62.8) | 16 (37.2) | 1.58 (0.38, 6.54) | 0.528 | 1.28 (0.41, 4.04) | 0.670 |
High | 11 (52.4) | 10 (47.6) | 2.42 (0.54, 10.83) | 0.246 | 0.94 (0.32, 2.74) | 0.914 |
Ethnicity, n (%) | ||||||
NZEO | 36 (64.3) | 20 (35.7) | Reference | Reference | ||
Māori | 6 (60.0) | 4 (40.0) | 1.20 (0.28, 5.12) | 0.806 | 1.21 (0.45, 3.27) | 0.701 |
Asian | 20 (64.5) | 11 (35.5) | 0.99 (0.46, 2.15) | 0.980 | 2.05 (0.98, 4.29) | 0.058 |
BMI z-score, mean (SD) | 0.04 (0.99) | 1.15 (1.03) | 3.01 (1.03, 8.76) | 0.044 | 3.24 (1.08, 9.69) | 0.036 |
Weight status, n (%) | ||||||
Not overweight | 51 (79.7) | 13 (20.3) | Reference | Reference | ||
Overweight | 11 (33.3) | 22 (66.7) | 7.85 (2.54, 24.16) | <0.001 | 9.42 (2.89, 30.69) | <0.001 |
Dietary habits b, median (25th, 75th percentiles) serves per day | ||||||
Fruit | 1 (0.4, 2) | 1 (0.4, 2) | 0.84 (0.54, 1.28) | 0.410 | 0.69 (0.40, 1.19) | 0.183 |
Vegetables | 1 (0.8, 2) | 1 (0.8, 2) | 1.03 (0.76, 1.39) | 0.858 | 0.84 (0.59, 1.18) | 0.316 |
Milk | 1 (0.4, 2.5) | 1 (0.4, 2.5) | 1.14 (0.78, 1.67) | 0.497 | 1.12 (0.67, 1.87) | 0.663 |
Meat | 1.8 (1.4, 2.7) | 2.0 (1.5, 2.6) | 1.11 (0.92, 1.34) | 0.256 | 0.96 (0.64, 1.46) | 0.862 |
Plant protein c | 0.8 (0.4, 2.5) | 0.7 (0.2, 3.5) | 1.05 (0.88, 1.25) | 0.583 | 1.03 (0.66, 1.60) | 0.901 |
Sweet drinks d | 0.6 (0.1, 1.2) | 0.8 (0.1, 1.3) | 1.13 (1.03, 1.24) | 0.008 | 1.16 (0.998, 1.34) | 0.053 |
Snacks e | 1.6 (0.8, 2.6) | 1.3 (0.6, 2.1) | 0.94 (0.81, 1.09) | 0.399 | 1.09 (0.83, 1.42) | 0.548 |
Daily dietary intake f | N = 55 | N = 33 | ||||
Energy, MJ | 11.0 (4.3) | 10.3 (3.2) | 0.95 (0.89, 1.01) | 0.078 | 0.88 (0.74, 1.05) | 0.164 |
Protein, % energy | 18.3 (3.3) | 18.2 (3.0) | 0.99 (0.85, 1.15) | 0.893 | 0.94 (0.79, 1.12) | 0.491 |
Fat, % energy | 32.3 (6.2) | 38.0 (5.8) | 1.02 (0.96, 1.09) | 0.534 | 1.04 (0.96, 1.12) | 0.340 |
Carbohydrate, % energy | 46.0 (6.1) | 44.9 (8.0) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.01) | 0.199 | 1.00 (0.93, 1.06) | 0.884 |
Fibre, g | 27.1 (11.6) | 23.6 (10.3) | 0.97 (0.94, 0.997) | 0.033 | 0.93 (0.85, 1.02) | 0.117 |
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Yap, J.; Ng, H.M.; Peddie, M.C.; Fleming, E.A.; Webster, K.; Scott, T.; Haszard, J.J. How Does Being Overweight Moderate Associations between Diet and Blood Pressure in Male Adolescents? Nutrients 2021, 13, 2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13062054
Yap J, Ng HM, Peddie MC, Fleming EA, Webster K, Scott T, Haszard JJ. How Does Being Overweight Moderate Associations between Diet and Blood Pressure in Male Adolescents? Nutrients. 2021; 13(6):2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13062054
Chicago/Turabian StyleYap, Jia, Hwei Min Ng, Meredith C. Peddie, Elizabeth A. Fleming, Kirsten Webster, Tessa Scott, and Jillian J. Haszard. 2021. "How Does Being Overweight Moderate Associations between Diet and Blood Pressure in Male Adolescents?" Nutrients 13, no. 6: 2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13062054
APA StyleYap, J., Ng, H. M., Peddie, M. C., Fleming, E. A., Webster, K., Scott, T., & Haszard, J. J. (2021). How Does Being Overweight Moderate Associations between Diet and Blood Pressure in Male Adolescents? Nutrients, 13(6), 2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13062054