Food Insecurity and COVID-19: Disparities in Early Effects for US Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Measures
2.2. Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
State | N | Percent |
---|---|---|
Alabama | 22 | 1.49 |
Alaska | 3 | 0.2 |
Arizona | 35 | 2.37 |
Arkansas | 16 | 1.08 |
California | 150 | 10.15 |
Colorado | 19 | 1.29 |
Connecticut | 10 | 0.68 |
Delaware | 7 | 0.47 |
District of Columbia | 2 | 0.14 |
Florida | 102 | 6.9 |
Georgia | 50 | 3.38 |
Hawaii | 7 | 0.47 |
Idaho | 8 | 0.54 |
Illinois | 62 | 4.19 |
Indiana | 28 | 1.89 |
Iowa | 11 | 0.74 |
Kansas | 19 | 1.29 |
Kentucky | 27 | 1.83 |
Louisiana | 17 | 1.15 |
Maine | 10 | 0.68 |
Maryland | 20 | 1.35 |
Massachusetts | 26 | 1.76 |
Michigan | 58 | 3.92 |
Minnesota | 21 | 1.42 |
Mississippi | 14 | 0.95 |
Missouri | 30 | 2.03 |
Montana | 4 | 0.27 |
Nebraska | 5 | 0.34 |
Nevada | 26 | 1.76 |
New Hampshire | 6 | 0.41 |
New Jersey | 37 | 2.5 |
New Mexico | 13 | 0.88 |
New York | 100 | 6.77 |
North Carolina | 52 | 3.52 |
North Dakota | 0 | 0 |
Ohio | 68 | 4.6 |
Oklahoma | 25 | 1.69 |
Oregon | 17 | 1.15 |
Pennsylvania | 72 | 4.87 |
Puerto Rico | 0 | 0 |
Rhode Island | 3 | 0.2 |
South Carolina | 30 | 2.03 |
South Dakota | 3 | 0.2 |
Tennessee | 31 | 2.1 |
Texas | 90 | 6.09 |
Utah | 21 | 1.42 |
Vermont | 3 | 0.2 |
Virginia | 29 | 1.96 |
Washington | 28 | 1.89 |
West Virginia | 13 | 0.88 |
Wisconsin | 28 | 1.89 |
Wyoming | 0 | 0 |
Total | 1478 | 100 |
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Overall | Food Security Status | p-Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Marginal | Low | Very Low | |||
n (%) a | n (%) b | n (%) b | n (%) b | n (%) b | ||
Total | 1478 (100) | 532 (36) | 290 (20) | 256 (17) | 400 (27) | |
Age | ||||||
18–39 | 635 (43) | 168 (26) | 116 (18) | 140 (22) | 211 (33) | <0.001 |
40–59 | 429 (29) | 152 (35) | 88 (21) | 62 (14) | 127 (30) | |
≥60 | 414 (28) | 212 (51) | 86 (21) | 54 (13) | 62 (15) | |
Sex | ||||||
Male | 733 (50) | 285 (39) | 135 (18) | 128 (17) | 185 (25) | 0.100 |
Female | 745 (50) | 247 (33) | 155 (21) | 128 (17) | 215 (29) | |
Race/ethnicity | ||||||
NH White | 990 (67) | 384 (39) | 185 (19) | 160 (16) | 261 (26) | 0.026 |
NH Black | 161 (11) | 47 (29) | 36 (22) | 36 (22) | 42 (26) | |
Hispanic | 186 (13) | 55 (30) | 35 (19) | 39 (21) | 57 (31) | |
Asian | 73 (5) | 24 (33) | 23 (32) | 11 (15) | 15 (21) | |
Other | 68 (5) | 22 (32) | 11 (16) | 10 (15) | 25 (37) | |
Household Size | ||||||
1–3 people | 1113 (75) | 416 (37) | 219 (20) | 177 (16) | 301 (27) | 0.054 |
≥4 people | 365 (25) | 116 (32) | 71 (19) | 79 (22) | 99 (27) | |
Marital Status | ||||||
Single, never married | 564 (38) | 199 (35) | 108 (19) | 118 (21) | 139 (35) | <0.001 |
Married | 448 (30) | 180 (40) | 91 (20) | 68 (15) | 109 (24) | |
Separated, divorced, widowed | 311 (21) | 124 (40) | 58 (19) | 43 (14) | 86 (28) | |
Living with a partner | 150 (10) | 27 (18) | 32 (21) | 26 (17) | 65 (43) | |
Children < 18 years in home | ||||||
Yes | 445 (30) | 120 (27) | 85 (19) | 92 (21) | 148 (33) | <0.001 |
No | 1033 (70) | 412 (40) | 205 (20) | 164 (16) | 252 (24) | |
Income | ||||||
<$35,000/year | 894 (60) | 297 (33) | 175 (20) | 165 (18) | 257 (29) | 0.015 |
$35,000 ≤ $59,000/year | 418 (28) | 162 (39) | 75 (18) | 69 (17) | 112 (27) | |
≥$59,000/year | 166 (11) | 73 (44) | 40 (24) | 22 (13) | 31 (19) | |
Education | ||||||
High school/GED | 439 (30) | 122 (28) | 83 (19) | 91 (21) | 143 (33) | <0.001 |
Some college | 524 (35) | 197 (38) | 104 (29) | 75 (14) | 148 (28) | |
College/grad degree | 515 (35) | 213 (41) | 103 (20) | 90 (17) | 109 (21) | |
Employment status | ||||||
Full time job (hourly or salary) | 408 (29) | 139 (34) | 68 (17) | 81 (20) | 120 (29) | 0.002 |
Part time job (hourly or salary) | 239 (17) | 83 (35) | 51 (21) | 41 (17) | 64 (27) | |
Not working, looking for work | 197 (14) | 58 (29) | 38 (19) | 38 (19) | 63 (32) | |
Not working, not looking for work | 415 (30) | 186 (45) | 86 (21) | 55 (13) | 88 (21) | |
Home-maker | 141 (10) | 46 (33) | 27 (19) | 21 (15) | 47 (33) | |
Student | ||||||
Yes | 95 (6) | 29 (31) | 26 (27) | 20 (21) | 20 (21) | 0.106 |
No | 1383 (94) | 503 (36) | 264 (19) | 236 (17) | 380 (27) | |
Home ownership | ||||||
Rent | 744 (50) | 201 (27) | 144 (19) | 154 (21) | 245 (33) | <0.001 |
Own | 538 (43) | 287 (45) | 128 (20) | 89 (14) | 134 (21) | |
Other | 96 (7) | 44 (46) | 18 (19) | 13 (14) | 21 (22) | |
Health insurance | ||||||
None | 231 (16) | 68 (29) | 40 (17) | 35 (15) | 88 (38) | <0.001 |
Yes, through work | 260 (18) | 97 (37) | 45 (17) | 57 (22) | 61 (23) | |
Yes, Medicare | 437 (30) | 189 (43) | 83 (19) | 73 (17) | 92 (21) | |
Yes, Medicaid | 338 (23) | 91 (27) | 73 (22) | 55 (16) | 119 (35) | |
Yes, other | 212 (14) | 87 (41) | 49 (23) | 35 (17) | 40 (19) | |
Political party affiliation | ||||||
Republican | 396 (27) | 174 (44) | 76 (19) | 50 (13) | 96 (24) | 0.004 |
Democrat | 594 (40) | 190 (32) | 124 (21) | 115 (19) | 165 (28) | |
Independent | 488 (33) | 168 (34) | 90 (18) | 91 (19) | 139 (28) | |
SNAP benefits | ||||||
No | 1065 (72) | 452 (42) | 207 (19) | 182 (17) | 224 (21) | <0.001 |
Yes | 413 (28) | 80 (19) | 83 (20) | 74 (18) | 176 (43) | |
Region of residence | ||||||
Northeast | 273 (18) | 90 (33) | 57 (21) | 59 (22) | 67 (25) | 0.406 |
Midwest | 332 (22) | 127 (38) | 69 (21) | 47 (14) | 89 (27) | |
South | 542 (37) | 196 (36) | 95 (18) | 97 (18) | 154 (28) | |
West | 331 (22) | 119 (36) | 69 (21) | 53 (16) | 90 (27) |
Overall (n = 655) | Food Security Status | p-Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High n = 225 (34%) | Marginal n = 120 (18%) | Low n = 124 (19%) | Very Low n = 186 (28%) | |||
n (%) a | n (%) b | n (%) b | n (%) b | n (%)b | ||
What is your workplace doing to adjust to COVID-19? c | ||||||
Nothing, proceeding as normal | 152 (23) | 64 (42) | 27 (18) | 25 (16) | 36 (24) | 0.004 |
Employees encouraged to work at home | 69 (11) | 15 (22) | 17 (25) | 17 (25) | 20 (29) | |
Employees must work at home | 69 (11) | 17 (25) | 14 (20) | 16 (23) | 22 (32) | |
Essential employees must come in, others work from home | 58 (9) | 29 (50) | 5 (9) | 14 (24) | 10 (32) | |
Hours are reduced | 79 (12) | 20 (25) | 11 (14) | 17 (22) | 31 (39) | |
Temporarily closed | 131 (20) | 44 (34) | 27 (21) | 21 (16) | 39 (30) | |
Closed and I have been laid off | 25 (4) | 11 (44) | 6 (24) | 3 (12) | 5 (20) | |
Busier, employees working extra hours | 47 (7) | 21 (45) | 9 (19) | 8 (17) | 9 (19) | |
If you or someone in your family becomes ill with COVID-19, what do you expect will happen regarding your job? c (check all that apply) | ||||||
I will be able to stay home without using sick or vacation days | 162 (26) | 71 (44) | 31 (19) | 31 (19) | 29 (18) | 0.003 |
I will be able to use sick days to stay home without losing income | 123 (19) | 55 (45) | 22 (18) | 23 (19) | 23 (19) | 0.022 |
I will be able to use vacation days to stay home without losing income | 74 (12) | 27 (36) | 11 (15) | 17 (23) | 19 (26) | 0.573 |
I do not have sick days so if I am not able to work I will lose income | 260 (41) | 72 (28) | 49 (19) | 45 (17) | 94 (36) | 0.002 |
I will have to go into work even if I am sick | 33 (5) | 6 (18) | 6 (18) | 8 (24) | 13 (39) | 0.180 |
If I miss too many days of work I could lose my job | 61 (10) | 11 (18) | 9 (15) | 9 (15) | 32 (52) | <0.001 |
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Wolfson, J.A.; Leung, C.W. Food Insecurity and COVID-19: Disparities in Early Effects for US Adults. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1648. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061648
Wolfson JA, Leung CW. Food Insecurity and COVID-19: Disparities in Early Effects for US Adults. Nutrients. 2020; 12(6):1648. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061648
Chicago/Turabian StyleWolfson, Julia A., and Cindy W. Leung. 2020. "Food Insecurity and COVID-19: Disparities in Early Effects for US Adults" Nutrients 12, no. 6: 1648. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061648
APA StyleWolfson, J. A., & Leung, C. W. (2020). Food Insecurity and COVID-19: Disparities in Early Effects for US Adults. Nutrients, 12(6), 1648. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061648