The Effect of Probiotics on the Production of Short-Chain Fatty Acids by Human Intestinal Microbiome
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Short-Chain Fatty Acids
2.1. Bacterial Fermentation Involved into Production of SCFAs
2.2. Functions of Short-Chain Fatty Acids
3. The Effect of Probiotics on SCFAs Production by Intestinal Microbiome
3.1. Colorectal Cancer (CRC)
3.2. Obesity
3.3. Type 2 Diabetes (T2D)
3.4. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
3.5. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
3.6. Atopic Dermatitis (AD)
3.7. Gastrointestinal Disorders
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Name | Chemical Formula | Structural Formula | Molar Mass [g/mol] |
---|---|---|---|
Formic acid | HCOOH | 46.03 | |
Acetic acid | CH3COOH | 60.05 | |
Propionic acid | CH3CH2COOH | 74.08 | |
Butyric acid | CH3(CH2)2COOH | 88.11 | |
Valeric acid | CH3(CH2)3COOH | 102.13 | |
Caproic acid | CH3(CH2)4COOH | 116.16 |
Microorganism/s | Type | Acid/s | References |
---|---|---|---|
Bifidobacterium spp., Blautia hydrogentrophica, Prevotella spp., Streptococcus spp. | commensal | acetic | [33] |
Akkermansia muciniphilia, Bacteroides spp., | commensal | acetic, propionic | [33,34] |
Dalister succinatiphilus, Eubacterium spp. (e.g., E. halli), Megasphaera elsdenii, Phascolarctobacterium succinatutens, Roseburia spp., Salmonella spp., Veillonella spp. | commensal | propionic | [34] |
Coprococcus spp. (e.g., Coprococcus catus), Roseburia inulinivorans | commensal | propionic, butyric | [34,35,36] |
Anaerostipes spp., Coprococcus comes, Coprococcus eutactus, Clostridium symbiosum, Eubacterium rectale, Eubacterium hallii, Faecalibacterium spp. (e.g., Faecalibacterium prausnitzii), Roseburia spp. (e.g., Roseburia intestinalis) | commensal | butyric | [33,34,35,36] |
Clostridium spp., Ruminococcus spp. | commensal | acetic, propionic, butyric | [33,34,36,37] |
Bifidobacterium spp. | probiotic | acetic, lactic | [38] |
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), Lactobacillus gasseri PA 16/8 | probiotic | propionic, lactic | [5] |
Bifidobacterium longum SP 07/3, Bifidobacterium bifidum MF 20/5 | probiotic | acetic, propionic, lactic | |
Lactobacillus salivarius spp salcinius JCM 1230, Lactobacillus agilis JCM 1048 | probiotic | propionic, butyric, lactic | [39] |
Lactobacillus acidophilus CRL 1014 | probiotic | acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic | [40,41,42,43] |
Receptor | Ligand | Protein G | Exspression | Physiological Function |
---|---|---|---|---|
FFAR2—Free fatty acid receptor 2 (GPR43) | Acetate, propionate, butyrate | Gi/o, Gq11 | Small intestinal epithelium, colonic, colonic LP cells, leukocytes in small intestinal LP, adipocytes, polymorphonuclear cells, skeltal muscle, spleen and heart etc. | Apetite control, anti-lipolysis, increased insulin sensitivity, preadipocyte differentiation, expansion and differentiation of Tregs, protection against IBD, apoptosis of human colon cancer cel line etc. |
FFAR3—Free fatty acid receptor 3 (GPR41) | Acetate, propionate, butyrate | Gi/o | Small intestinal epithelium, colonic, colonic LP cells (mast cells), peripheral nervous system, peripheral mononuclear cells, bone marrow spleen, adipocytes, lymph nodes, etc. | Leptin expression, oxygen consumption rate, increased energy expenditure, decreased food intake, hematopoiesis of DCs from bone marrow, increased DC precursors alleviating asthma and Treg cells etc. |
HCA1—Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1 (GPR81) | lactate | (Gi) | Predominantly in adipose tissue, minor in kidney, skeletal muscle, liver, intestinal tissue, rat and human brain, mouse primary cortical neuronal cells, macrophages, etc. | Modulation of cortical neuron activity, and enterocyte turnover in response to starvation-refeeding, anti-lipolysis, anti-inflammatory on macrophages, reduced symptom of cancer and IBD in mouse models of hepatitis and pancreatitis, etc. |
HCA2—Hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (GPR109A) | Niacin, ketone bodies, β-hydroxybutyric acids, butyrate | Gi/o, Gβγ | Apical membrane of colonic and small intestinal epithelium, monocytes, adipocytes, macrophages, DCs, neutrophils, retinal pigment epithelium, etc. | Improved epithelial barrier function, anti-lipolysis, decrease of triglyceride, protection against CRC and colitis, increase of Treg generation and IL-10 producing T cells, etc. |
Olfr78 (murine) OR51E2 (human) | Acetate, propionate | NR | Neurons, epithelial enteroendocrine cells of colon, enteroendocrine cells, renal afferent arteriole, smooth muscle cells, etc. | Regulation of hormone secretion (GLP-1, PYY) and blood pressure, etc. |
PPARγ (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma) | Propionate, butyrate | NR | Large intestine adenocarcinoma cells, etc. | Regulation of lipid metabolism, a joining factor between the gut microflora composition and accumulation of the adipose tissue, etc. |
Type of SCFA | The Effect on Human Health | References |
---|---|---|
Acetate |
| [82] |
| [74] | |
Butyrate |
| [37] |
| [64] | |
| [65,66,67] | |
| [83] | |
| [78] | |
| [84] | |
| [85] | |
Butyrate/acetate/propionate |
| [86] |
Formate |
| [71,72] |
Propionate |
| [76,87] |
| [88,89] | |
Valerate |
| [79,80,81] |
Subjects | Probiotic | Time of Administration | Main Outcome | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Colorectal Cancer (CRC) | ||||
30 patients (10 CRC patients and 20 healthy subjects) | Lactobacillus gasseri OLL271 6: LG21 | 12 weeks |
| [103] |
17 healthy subjects (aged 45 to 75 years) | Bifidobacterium lactis LAFTI B94 | 4 weeks |
| [104] |
Obesity | ||||
40 children 7–10 years (19 normal weight and 21overweight children) | Lactobacillus casei Shirota | 2 phases (each lasted for 4 weeks with a 4-week wash-out period between phases) |
| [2] |
34 children 8.5–10.8 years (22 normal weight and 12 overweight children) | Lactobacillus casei Shirota | 6 months |
| [24] |
Type 2 Diabetes | ||||
50 volunteers with T2D | Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12 | 6 weeks |
| [105] |
Gastrointestinal Disorders | ||||
22 children with shigellosis and 11 children with salmonellosis (mean age–5.3 years) | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (ATCC 53103) | In three portions per day for 10 days compared to treatment with an antibacterial drug (TMP-SMX or Polymyxin) for 5 days. |
| [106] |
Autism Spectrum Disorders | ||||
97 children (58 children with ASD–two groups: A-Probiotic, A-No-Probiotic and 39 healthy children) (2.5–18 years) | No information |
| [107] | |
Atopic Dermatitis | ||||
19 AD children and 18 healthy individuals (0–6 years) | Bifidobacterium breve BR03, Lactobacillus salivarius LS01 | 20 days |
| [108] |
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Markowiak-Kopeć, P.; Śliżewska, K. The Effect of Probiotics on the Production of Short-Chain Fatty Acids by Human Intestinal Microbiome. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041107
Markowiak-Kopeć P, Śliżewska K. The Effect of Probiotics on the Production of Short-Chain Fatty Acids by Human Intestinal Microbiome. Nutrients. 2020; 12(4):1107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041107
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarkowiak-Kopeć, Paulina, and Katarzyna Śliżewska. 2020. "The Effect of Probiotics on the Production of Short-Chain Fatty Acids by Human Intestinal Microbiome" Nutrients 12, no. 4: 1107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041107