Nutrient Profiling Is Needed to Improve the Nutritional Quality of the Foods Labelled with Health-Related Claims
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Food Database
2.2. Product Categorization
2.3. Categorization of Claims
2.4. Nutrient Profiling
2.5. Assuring Data Quality
2.6. Data Management and Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Nutrition Composition of Products in the Food Supply
3.2. Nutritional Composition of Products with and without Claims
3.3. Overall Nutritional Quality of Products
3.4. Comparison of Nutrient Profiling Models for Assessing the Nutritional Quality of Foods
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food Category | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Beverages | Bread and Bakery Products | Cereal and Cereal Products | Confectionery | Convenience Foods | Dairy | Edible Oils and Emulsions | Eggs | Fish and Fish Products | Foods for Spec. Dietary Use | Fruit and Vegetables | Meat and Meat Products | Sauces and Spreads | Snackfoods | ||
n | 796 | 794 | 803 | 696 | 406 | 1133 | 209 | 18 | 166 | 121 | 674 | 300 | 312 | 191 | |
Nutrient (per 100 g or per 100 mL) | |||||||||||||||
Energy (kJ) | Mean | 141 | 1733 | 1504 | 1911 | 531 | 643 | 3210 | 616 | 877 | 322 | 827 | 1095 | 1150 | 2043 |
SD | 73 | 375 | 249 | 512 | 417 | 427 | 666 | 41 | 408 | 258 | 809 | 502 | 936 | 234 | |
SW Mean | 93 | 1591 | 1502 | 2029 | 578 | 375 | 3191 | 613 | 1123 | 380 | 540 | 1022 | 1643 | 2051 | |
Total fat (g) | Mean | 0.2 | 15.8 | 4.9 | 21.5 | 5.2 | 9.4 | 86.5 | 10.6 | 14.6 | 1.4 | 9.4 | 20.8 | 21.7 | 23.9 |
SD | 0.5 | 9.6 | 5.6 | 15.8 | 5.0 | 10.2 | 18.3 | 1.0 | 11.5 | 1.7 | 18.5 | 13.6 | 23.9 | 9.0 | |
SW Mean | 0.0 | 12.5 | 3.2 | 24.6 | 5.8 | 5.3 | 86.1 | 10.5 | 22.1 | 2.5 | 5.3 | 20.3 | 31.6 | 24.4 | |
Saturated fat (g) | Mean | 0.1 | 7.4 | 1.8 | 11.7 | 1.7 | 6.2 | 23.3 | 2.9 | 2.5 | 0.6 | 2.2 | 6.5 | 4.0 | 6.7 |
SD | 0.3 | 5.9 | 2.9 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 7.1 | 20.5 | 0.3 | 1.7 | 0.9 | 7.1 | 5.3 | 5.0 | 4.4 | |
SW Mean | 0.0 | 5.9 | 1.1 | 13.1 | 1.8 | 3.4 | 19.4 | 2.9 | 3.6 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 6.1 | 5.6 | 6.4 | |
Carbohydrates (g) | Mean | 7.6 | 59.1 | 66.1 | 63.1 | 13.5 | 11.4 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 2.9 | 13.8 | 22.6 | 2.4 | 15.6 | 57.8 |
SD | 4.1 | 12.4 | 12.8 | 17.7 | 12.7 | 8.9 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 5.3 | 11.7 | 23.1 | 3.0 | 17.8 | 8.8 | |
SW Mean | 5.3 | 57.4 | 70.1 | 61.4 | 14.8 | 6.6 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 2.6 | 13.7 | 14.3 | 1.4 | 23.7 | 57.2 | |
Total sugars (g) | Mean | 7.0 | 20.9 | 8.2 | 46.5 | 1.9 | 9.4 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 7.9 | 16.1 | 0.6 | 11.8 | 3.2 |
SD | 3.9 | 16.1 | 10.8 | 21.5 | 2.6 | 7.4 | 0.7 | 0.3 | 1.4 | 4.0 | 21.2 | 0.7 | 17.3 | 5.1 | |
SW Mean | 5.0 | 18.5 | 5.3 | 50.4 | 1.8 | 6.2 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 9.3 | 7.8 | 0.4 | 21.6 | 2.5 | |
Fibre (g) | Mean | 0.2 | 3.6 | 4.9 | 2.6 | 1.6 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 4.5 | 0.9 | 1.9 | 4.1 |
SD | 0.5 | 2.8 | 4.1 | 3.1 | 1.7 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 4.9 | 1.2 | 2.0 | 1.9 | |
SW Mean | 0.0 | 3.2 | 3.6 | 2.4 | 1.8 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 1.5 | 4.0 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 3.9 | |
Protein (g) | Mean | 0.2 | 7.3 | 10.2 | 4.9 | 5.7 | 5.8 | 0.2 | 12.2 | 16.8 | 1.7 | 4.9 | 16.5 | 4.2 | 8.3 |
SD | 0.4 | 2.9 | 3.5 | 3.7 | 5.6 | 6.6 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 6.4 | 1.9 | 7.4 | 7.9 | 4.8 | 3.5 | |
SW Mean | 0.1 | 7.5 | 9.9 | 5.3 | 5.8 | 3.9 | 0.2 | 12.2 | 15.4 | 3.0 | 4.5 | 14.3 | 3.3 | 8.3 | |
Salt (g) | Mean | 0.0 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.0 |
SD | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 0.1 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 3.1 | 0.8 | |
SW Mean | 0.1 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 2.1 | 1.1 | 2.0 |
Nutrient (per 100 g or per 100 mL) | Presence of Claim | Nutrition claim (nc = 1602; nnc = 5017) | Health Claim (nc = 462; nnc = 6157) | FOP Symbol (nc = 104; nnc = 6515) | NHC (nc = 1708; nnc = 4911) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | SD | p | SWA | A | SD | p | SWA | A | SD | p | SWA | A | SD | p | SWA | ||
Energy (kJ) | Claim | 973 | 862 | <0.0001 * | 316 | 1076 | 926 | 0.026 * | 288 | 1067 | 1223 | 0.018 * | 577 | 983 | 862 | <0.0001 * | 320 |
No claim | 1179 | 841 | 639 | 1133 | 845 | 548 | 1130 | 844 | 531 | 1180 | 841 | 639 | |||||
Total fat (g) | Claim | 9.7 | 20.6 | <0.0001 * | 4.4 | 12.2 | 23.0 | <0.0001 * | 4.3 | 17.0 | 35.4 | 0.024 * | 9.4 | 9.8 | 20.4 | <0.0001 * | 4.4 |
No claim | 14.6 | 18.7 | 8.1 | 13.5 | 19.0 | 7.0 | 13.4 | 18.9 | 6.8 | 14.7 | 18.7 | 8.1 | |||||
Saturated fat (g) | Claim | 2.7 | 6.0 | <0.0001 * | 1.2 | 3.7 | 8.2 | <0.0001 * | 1.0 | 2.6 | 4.6 | 0.1007 | 1.7 | 2.8 | 6.5 | <0.0001 * | 1.2 |
No claim | 6.0 | 8.6 | 3.3 | 5.3 | 8.2 | 2.7 | 5.3 | 8.2 | 2.6 | 6.1 | 8.5 | 3.3 | |||||
Carbohydrates (g) | Claim | 30.8 | 30.3 | 0.791 | 6.8 | 31.4 | 30.2 | 0.6859 | 6.1 | 18.6 | 23.4 | <0.0001 * | 8.8 | 31.2 | 30.4 | 0.783 | 7.0 |
No claim | 30.5 | 27.8 | 16.3 | 30.5 | 28.3 | 13.6 | 30.8 | 28.5 | 13.2 | 30.4 | 27.7 | 16.2 | |||||
Total sugars (g) | Claim | 10.1 | 14.7 | <0.0001 * | 4.0 | 9.8 | 13.8 | <0.0001 * | 2.5 | 6.2 | 5.5 | 0.044 * | 6.6 | 10.6 | 15.3 | 0.0001 * | 4.0 |
No claim | 14.5 | 19.0 | 8.4 | 13.7 | 18.4 | 7.3 | 13.6 | 18.3 | 7.0 | 14.5 | 18.9 | 8.4 | |||||
Fibre (g) | Claim | 2.8 | 4.5 | 0.188 | 0.4 | 3.1 | 4.6 | 0.5143 | 0.5 | 2.2 | 3.5 | 0.0003 * | 0.6 | 2.8 | 4.4 | 0.257 | 0.4 |
No claim | 2.0 | 2.7 | 0.8 | 2.2 | 3.1 | 0.7 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 0.7 | 2.0 | 2.7 | 0.8 | |||||
Protein (g) | Claim | 5.5 | 6.2 | <0.0001 * | 2.0 | 6.0 | 6.8 | 0.005 * | 1.5 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 0.583 | 4.8 | 5.6 | 6.3 | <0.0001 * | 2.1 |
No claim | 6.4 | 6.4 | 3.4 | 6.2 | 6.3 | 3.0 | 6.2 | 6.4 | 2.9 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 3.4 | |||||
Salt (g) | Claim | 0.3 | 0.6 | <0.0001 * | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.7 | <0.0001 * | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.6 | <0.0001 * | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.6 | <0.0001 * | 0.2 |
No claim | 0.7 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 1.3 | 0.3 |
Nutrition Information (per 100 g or per 100 mL) | Presence of NHC | Beverages | Bread and Bakery Products | Cereal and Cereal Products | Confectionery | Convenience Foods | Dairy | Edible Oils and Emulsions | Eggs | Fish and Fish Products | Foods for Specific Dietary Use | Fruit and Vegetables | Meat and Meat Products | Sauces and Spreads | Snackfoods | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy (kJ) | Mean | Claim | 117 * | 1667 * | 1572 * | 1204 * | 864 * | 341 * | 3140 | 615 | 818 | 339 * | 950 * | 673 * | 1430 | 1986 |
No Claim | 155 * | 1750 * | 1458 * | 2064 * | 519 * | 764* | 3260 | 617 | 905 | 140 * | 799 * | 1177 * | 1121 | 2051 | ||
SW M. | Claim | 35 | 1561 | 1573 | 1167 | 893 | 266 | 3072 | 639 | 816 | 383 | 963 | 671 | 1256 | 2019 | |
No Claim | 132 | 1595 | 1482 | 2108 | 571 | 440 | 3262 | 611 | 1248 | 207 | 509 | 1,075 | 1667 | 2054 | ||
Total fat (g) | Mean | Claim | 0.1 * | 13.0 * | 5.7 * | 4.0 * | 9.4 * | 3.1 * | 84.7 | 10.4 | 13.5 | 1.5 * | 8.3 | 8.7 * | 31.4 * | 22.2 |
No Claim | 0.2 * | 16.5 * | 4.3 * | 25.2 * | 5.1 * | 11.9 * | 87.8 | 10.6 | 15.2 | 0.3 * | 9.7 | 23.1 * | 20.7 * | 24.1 | ||
SW M. | Claim | 0.0 | 10.8 | 4.7 | 2.4 | 10.0 | 2.6 | 82.9 | 11.1 | 14.4 | 2.5 | 12.4 | 10.1 | 30.1 | 23.8 | |
No Claim | 0.1 | 12.8 | 2.8 | 26.6 | 5.7 | 6.9 | 88.0 | 10.5 | 25.2 | 0.3 | 4.8 | 21.8 | 31.7 | 24.5 | ||
Saturated fat (g) | Mean | Claim | 0.0 * | 5.3 * | 1.9 * | 2.1 * | 2.0 | 1.9 * | 16.8 * | 2.7 | 2.7 | 0.7 | 3.3 | 2.3 * | 5.0 | 4.1 * |
No Claim | 0.2 * | 7.9 * | 1.8 * | 13.7 * | 1.7 | 7.9 * | 27.9 * | 2.9 | 2.4 | 0.1 | 1.9 | 7.3 * | 3.9 | 7.1 * | ||
SW M. | Claim | 0.0 | 4.1 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 12.5 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 5.9 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 2.8 | |
No Claim | 0.0 | 6.2 | 1.0 | 14.2 | 1.7 | 4.5 | 23.6 | 2.9 | 3.8 | 0.1 | 0.8 | 6.6 | 5.7 | 6.8 | ||
Carbohydrates (g) | Mean | Claim | 6.4 * | 59.3 | 66.7 * | 76.4 * | 15.0 | 8.8 * | 0.2 * | 0.7 | 1.8 | 14.4 | 33.8 * | 2.7 | 10.5 | 55.5 |
No Claim | 8.3 * | 59.1 | 65.7 * | 60.2 * | 13.5 | 12.4 * | 0.4 * | 1.1 | 3.4 | 7.0 | 20.1 * | 2.3 | 16.1 | 58.1 | ||
SW M. | Claim | 1.9 | 55.7 | 69.8 | 76.4 | 15.3 | 6.3 | 0.2 | 1.2 | 3.0 | 13.8 | 22.9 | 1.7 | 6.8 | 58.0 | |
No Claim | 7.6 | 57.7 | 70.1 | 60.1 | 14.8 | 6.8 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 10.6 | 13.7 | 1.4 | 24.7 | 57.1 | ||
Total sugars (g) | Mean | Claim | 5.8 * | 11.6 * | 12.8 * | 28.1 * | 2.0 | 7.4 * | 0.2 * | 0.6 | 1.1 | 8.2 | 25.4 * | 0.7 | 6.5 | 4.1 |
No Claim | 7.6 * | 23.4 * | 5.1 * | 50.5 * | 1.9 | 10.3 * | 0.2 * | 0.8 | 0.7 | 5.0 | 14.0 * | 0.6 | 12.3 | 3.1 | ||
SW M. | Claim | 1.8 | 11.4 | 14.3 | 30.9 | 1.4 | 5.9 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 9.3 | 15.0 | 0.7 | 4.9 | 4.0 | |
No Claim | 7.2 | 19.5 | 2.9 | 52.2 | 1.9 | 6.3 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 7.6 | 7.3 | 0.4 | 22.7 | 2.4 | ||
Fiber (g) | Mean | Claim | 0.2 | 6.4 * | 7.2 * | 1.3 * | 2.6 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.7 * | 0.9 * | 5.4 | 1.4 * | 3.2 | 4.9 |
No Claim | 0.1 | 2.9 * | 3.4 * | 2.9 * | 1.5 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 * | 0.4 * | 4.3 | 0.9 * | 1.8 | 4.0 | ||
SW M. | Claim | 0.0 | 6.9 | 6.2 | 0.8 | 2.1 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 6.0 | 0.8 | 1.7 | 4.4 | |
No Claim | 0.1 | 2.7 | 2.9 | 2.5 | 1.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 3.9 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 3.9 | ||
Protein (g) | Mean | Claim | 0.2 * | 8.5 * | 10.4 | 1.9 * | 13.9 * | 4.3 * | 0.2 * | 12.2 | 17.0 | 1.8 * | 4.4 * | 16.8 * | 6.5 | 9.5 |
No Claim | 0.3 * | 6.9 * | 10.1 | 5.5 * | 5.4 * | 6.5 * | 0.2 * | 12.2 | 16.6 | 0.5 * | 5.0 * | 16.5 * | 4.0 | 8.2 | ||
SW M. | Claim | 0.0 | 9.5 | 10.1 | 0.8 | 14.6 | 3.7 | 0.1 | 12.1 | 13.6 | 3.0 | 6.0 | 15.7 | 1.8 | 6.9 | |
No Claim | 0.1 | 7.3 | 9.8 | 5.7 | 5.6 | 4.0 | 0.2 | 12.2 | 16.1 | 0.6 | 4.4 | 14.1 | 3.4 | 8.5 | ||
Salt (g) | Mean | Claim | 0.0 * | 0.9 * | 0.3 * | 0.1 * | 1.4 * | 0.2 * | 0.2 | 0.4 | 1.0 * | 0.1 * | 0.3 * | 1.5 * | 1.2 | 1.7 * |
No Claim | 0.0 * | 0.8 * | 0.4 * | 0.2 * | 1.0 * | 0.5* | 0.1 | 0.3 | 1.8 * | 0.0 * | 0.7 * | 2.1 * | 2.2 | 2.0 * | ||
SW M. | Claim | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 1.8 | |
No Claim | 0.0 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 2.2 | 1.1 | 2.0 |
Food Categories | All Products | Products with NHC | Products with no NHC | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | FSANZ | WHOE | PA | n | FSANZ | WHOE | n | FSANZ | WHOE | |||||||
% | SW % | % | SW % | % | SW % | % | SW % | % | SW % | % | SW % | |||||
Beverages | 796 | 50% | 50% | 12% | 41% | 63% | 281 | 72% | 69% | 19% | 68% | 515 | 38% | 37% | 9% | 22% |
Bread and bakery products | 794 | 20% | 39% | 7% | 21% | 86% | 166 | 37% | 42% | 18% | 20% | 628 | 16% | 38% | 4% | 21% |
Cereal and cereal products | 803 | 77% | 85% | 65% | 80% | 87% | 322 | 73% | 67% | 53% | 54% | 481 | 79% | 90% | 72% | 87% |
Confectionery | 696 | 9% | 5% | 0% | 0% | 91% | 124 | 45% | 48% | 0% | 0% | 572 | 1% | 1% | 0% | 0% |
Convenience foods | 406 | 61% | 71% | 49% | 53% | 58% | 14 | 79% | 86% | 21% | 31% | 392 | 61% | 71% | 50% | 54% |
Dairy | 1133 | 51% | 73% | 19% | 26% | 60% | 323 | 76% | 86% | 42% | 39% | 810 | 41% | 64% | 10% | 18% |
Edible oils and emulsions | 209 | 67% | 76% | 73% | 77% | 94% | 86 | 80% | 95% | 88% | 98% | 123 | 59% | 64% | 62% | 65% |
Eggs | 18 | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 2 | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 16 | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% |
Fish and fish products | 166 | 57% | 43% | 65% | 52% | 90% | 53 | 64% | 79% | 79% | 95% | 113 | 54% | 29% | 58% | 34% |
Foods for specific dietary use | 121 | 99% | 100% | NA | NA | NA | 111 | 99% | 100% | NA | NA | 10 | 100% | 100% | NA | NA |
Fruit and vegetables | 674 | 73% | 92% | 38% | 53% | 64% | 125 | 73% | 85% | 26% | 29% | 549 | 73% | 92% | 40% | 55% |
Meat and meat products | 300 | 21% | 10% | 26% | 24% | 87% | 49 | 59% | 38% | 55% | 29% | 251 | 13% | 5% | 21% | 23% |
Sauces and spreads | 312 | 22% | 18% | 2% | 1% | 80% | 29 | 38% | 25% | 3% | 2% | 283 | 20% | 18% | 2% | 1% |
Snackfoods | 191 | 5% | 1% | 1% | 1% | 96% | 23 | 9% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 168 | 4% | 1% | 1% | 1% |
All products | 6619 | 46% | 59% | 26% | 37% | 76% | 1708 | 68% | 75% | 33% | 56% | 4911 | 39% | 51% | 23% | 27% |
Food Categories | Products with Nutrition Claims | Products with Health Claims | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | FSANZ | WHOE | nn | FSANZ | WHOE | |||||
% | SW % | % | SW % | % | SW % | % | SW % | |||
Beverages | 259 | 70% | 68% | 18% | 68% | 79 | 80% | 31% | 27% | 93% |
Bread and bakery products | 155 | 39% | 44% | 19% | 21% | 45 | 22% | 31% | 11% | 7% |
Cereal and cereal products | 304 | 75% | 67% | 55% | 53% | 98 | 55% | 51% | 40% | 42% |
Confectionery | 103 | 50% | 58% | 0% | 0% | 49 | 59% | 61% | 0% | 0% |
Convenience foods | 7 | 86% | 87% | 14% | 0% | 7 | 71% | 85% | 29% | 45% |
Dairy | 318 | 76% | 86% | 42% | 39% | 62 | 66% | 67% | 37% | 38% |
Edible oils and emulsions | 83 | 82% | 95% | 90% | 98% | 34 | 74% | 90% | 85% | 98% |
Eggs | 2 | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 1 | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% |
Fish and fish products | 51 | 63% | 78% | 78% | 95% | 9 | 56% | 67% | 78% | 80% |
Foods for specific dietary use | 109 | 99% | 100% | 0% | 0% | 29 | 97% | 99% | 0% | 0% |
Fruit and vegetables | 115 | 71% | 80% | 26% | 32% | 24 | 88% | 100% | 42% | 29% |
Meat and meat products | 49 | 59% | 38% | 55% | 29% | 18 | 56% | 49% | 17% | 10% |
Sauces and spreads | 26 | 38% | 24% | 4% | 2% | 4 | 25% | 24% | 0% | 0% |
Snackfoods | 21 | 10% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 3 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
All products | 1602 | 69% | 75% | 34% | 56% | 462 | 63% | 41% | 30% | 79% |
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Pivk Kupirovič, U.; Miklavec, K.; Hribar, M.; Kušar, A.; Žmitek, K.; Pravst, I. Nutrient Profiling Is Needed to Improve the Nutritional Quality of the Foods Labelled with Health-Related Claims. Nutrients 2019, 11, 287. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020287
Pivk Kupirovič U, Miklavec K, Hribar M, Kušar A, Žmitek K, Pravst I. Nutrient Profiling Is Needed to Improve the Nutritional Quality of the Foods Labelled with Health-Related Claims. Nutrients. 2019; 11(2):287. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020287
Chicago/Turabian StylePivk Kupirovič, Urška, Krista Miklavec, Maša Hribar, Anita Kušar, Katja Žmitek, and Igor Pravst. 2019. "Nutrient Profiling Is Needed to Improve the Nutritional Quality of the Foods Labelled with Health-Related Claims" Nutrients 11, no. 2: 287. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020287