Dietary Patterns Independent of Fast Food Are Associated with Obesity among Korean Adults: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2014
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Exclusion Criteria
2.2. Anthropometric Measurements
2.3. Dietary Assessment and Fast Food Consumption
2.4. Food Grouping
2.5. Dietary Pattern Analysis Excluding Fast Food
2.6. Covariates
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics
3.2. Total Intake and Dietary Intake Excluding Fast Food
3.3. Dietary Intakes According to Dietary Pattern
3.4. Dietary Pattern According to Fast Food Consumption
3.5. Overweight/obesity or Central Obesity According to Fast Food Consumption and Dietary Pattern
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviation:
KNHANES | Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |
SSBs | Sugar-sweetened beverages |
BMI | Body mass index |
FF | Fast foo |
OR | Odds ratio |
CI | Confidence interval |
References
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Grains, Fruit, and Milk Pattern 2 | White Rice and Kimchi Pattern | Meat and Alcohol Pattern | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non-Consumers 3 | FF Consumers | Non-Consumers | FF Consumers | Non-Consumers | FF Consumers | |||||||||||||
(n = 6541; 84.3%) | (n = 1085; 15.7%) | p-Value 4 | (n = 8695; 94.5%) | (n = 454; 5.5%) | p-Value 4 | (n = 1937; 85.7%) | (n = 305; 14.3%) | p-Value 4 | p-Value 5 | p-Value 6 | ||||||||
Age | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
19–39 years | 48.0 | (0.8) | 72.6 | (1.6) | 37.9 | (0.8) | 59.6 | (2.7) | 43.0 | (1.4) | 71.7 | (2.9) | ||||||
40–64 years | 52.0 | (0.8) | 27.4 | (1.6) | 62.1 | (0.8) | 40.4 | (2.7) | 57.0 | (1.4) | 28.3 | (2.9) | ||||||
Sex | 0.0546 | 0.7924 | 0.9789 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
Male | 40.3 | (0.7) | 44.0 | (1.7) | 51.9 | (0.6) | 52.6 | (2.7) | 73.9 | (1.0) | 73.8 | (2.6) | ||||||
Female | 59.7 | (0.7) | 56.0 | (1.7) | 48.1 | (0.6) | 47.4 | (2.7) | 26.1 | (1.0) | 26.2 | (2.6) | ||||||
Education | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
≤Middle school | 12.9 | (0.6) | 3.5 | (0.5) | 23.6 | (0.7) | 12.0 | (1.7) | 13.7 | (0.9) | 5.2 | (1.4) | ||||||
High school | 30.7 | (0.8) | 27.2 | (1.6) | 34.4 | (0.7) | 26.5 | (2.6) | 35.3 | (1.4) | 27.9 | (3.1) | ||||||
≥College degree | 56.4 | (0.9) | 69.2 | (1.6) | 42.0 | (0.8) | 61.5 | (3.0) | 51.1 | (1.5) | 66.9 | (3.1) | ||||||
Household income | 0.3162 | 0.2808 | 0.2902 | <0.0001 | 0.0554 | |||||||||||||
Low (Q1) | 7.5 | (0.5) | 9.3 | (1.3) | 11.9 | (0.5) | 9.4 | (1.9) | 8.3 | (0.8) | 7.5 | (1.7) | ||||||
Low middle (Q2) | 24.5 | (0.8) | 22.5 | (1.7) | 29.2 | (0.7) | 27.4 | (2.6) | 25.7 | (1.3) | 28.1 | (3.1) | ||||||
Middle-High (Q3) | 32.0 | (0.8) | 32.9 | (1.9) | 31.1 | (0.7) | 36.1 | (2.8) | 32.9 | (1.3) | 27.1 | (3.0) | ||||||
High (Q4) | 36.1 | (1.0) | 35.2 | (1.9) | 27.8 | (0.8) | 27.1 | (2.6) | 33.1 | (1.4) | 37.3 | (3.3) | ||||||
Region | 0.1189 | 0.0539 | 0.0240 | <0.0001 | 0.1463 | |||||||||||||
Urban | 76.6 | (1.1) | 79.4 | (1.9) | 68.4 | (1.1) | 73.9 | (2.7) | 71.9 | (1.6) | 79.2 | (2.9) | ||||||
Rural | 23.4 | (1.1) | 20.6 | (1.9) | 31.6 | (1.1) | 26.1 | (2.7) | 28.1 | (1.6) | 20.8 | (2.9) | ||||||
Smoking | 0.3475 | 0.5807 | 0.6760 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |||||||||||||
Current | 20.1 | (0.7) | 22.3 | (1.5) | 25.9 | (0.6) | 24.1 | (2.5) | 45.8 | (1.4) | 48.7 | (3.4) | ||||||
Past | 16.5 | (0.6) | 17.0 | (1.5) | 19.1 | (0.5) | 17.7 | (2.3) | 24.0 | (1.2) | 21.8 | (2.7) | ||||||
Never | 63.4 | (0.7) | 60.7 | (1.9) | 55.1 | (0.6) | 58.2 | (2.9) | 30.1 | (1.2) | 29.5 | (2.9) | ||||||
Physical activity | ||||||||||||||||||
Inactive | 35.5 | (0.8) | 36.7 | (1.8) | 0.4850 | 39.8 | (0.7) | 39.7 | (2.7) | 0.9953 | 33.2 | (1.3) | 34.3 | (3.2) | 0.1332 | <0.0001 | 0.7707 | |
Active | 44.3 | (0.8) | 42.0 | (1.8) | 39.5 | (0.6) | 39.8 | (2.7) | 39.1 | (1.4) | 44.1 | (3.3) | ||||||
Health enhancing | 20.1 | (0.6) | 21.3 | (1.5) | 20.7 | (0.6) | 20.6 | (2.4) | 27.7 | (1.2) | 21.6 | (2.5) |
Total Intake | Intake Minus FF 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Non-Consumer 3 | FF Consumer | Non-Consumer | FF Consumer | |
(n = 17,173; 90.3%) | (n = 1844; 9.7%) | (n = 17,173; 90.3%) | (n = 1844; 9.7%) | |
Food group (% of energy) 4 | ||||
White rice | 31.90 ± 0.21 | 17.91 ± 0.37 * | 31.90 ± 0.21 | 21.56 ± 0.42 * |
Grains | 6.06 ± 0.10 | 3.34 ± 0.15 * | 6.06 ± 0.10 | 3.98 ± 0.18 * |
Sweets | 1.89 ± 0.03 | 1.57 ± 0.07 * | 1.89 ± 0.03 | 1.90 ± 0.09 |
Legumes | 2.36 ± 0.04 | 1.43 ± 0.07 * | 2.36 ± 0.04 | 1.73 ± 0.09 * |
Nuts and seeds | 1.02 ± 0.03 | 0.64 ± 0.06 * | 1.02 ± 0.03 | 0.76 ± 0.07 * |
Vegetables | 3.16 ± 0.03 | 2.36 ± 0.08 * | 3.16 ± 0.03 | 2.84 ± 0.09 * |
Kimchi | 1.43 ± 0.02 | 0.81 ± 0.03 * | 1.43 ± 0.02 | 0.98 ± 0.03 * |
Fruit | 4.45 ± 0.08 | 2.89 ± 0.12 * | 4.45 ± 0.08 | 3.44 ± 0.14 * |
Meat and its products | 8.81 ± 0.11 | 10.63 ± 0.23 * | 8.81 ± 0.11 | 12.93 ± 0.28 * |
Eggs | 1.90 ± 0.03 | 1.69 ± 0.06 * | 1.90 ± 0.03 | 2.04 ± 0.08 |
Fish and shellfish | 3.71 ± 0.05 | 2.41 ± 0.10 * | 3.71 ± 0.05 | 2.91 ± 0.13 * |
Milk and dairy products | 3.53 ± 0.07 | 3.46 ± 0.14 | 3.53 ± 0.07 | 4.42 ± 0.21 * |
Oils | 3.27 ± 0.03 | 4.50 ± 0.10 * | 3.27 ± 0.03 | 5.49 ± 0.13 * |
Soda | 0.56 ± 0.02 | 2.40 ± 0.11 * | 0.56 ± 0.02 | 3.30 ± 0.16 * |
SSBs | 3.11 ± 0.05 | 2.44 ± 0.11 * | 3.11 ± 0.05 | 3.00 ± 0.15 |
Alcohol | 4.22 ± 0.11 | 4.30 ± 0.25 | 4.22 ± 0.11 | 5.02 ± 0.29 * |
Total energy, kcal/day | 2048.0 ± 8.9 | 2740.6 ± 30.2 * | 2048.0 ± 8.9 | 2229.9 ± 26.3 * |
Total carbohydrate, % of energy | 63.6 ± 0.2 | 52.5 ± 0.3 * | 63.6 ± 0.2 | 56.6 ± 0.4 * |
Total fat, % of energy | 18.7 ± 0.1 | 25.3 ± 0.2 * | 18.7 ± 0.1 | 22.5 ± 0.2 * |
Dietary Pattern 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|
White Rice and Kimchi Pattern | Meat and Alcohol Pattern | ||
Food groups (kcal/day) | |||
White rice | 505.4 (494.8, 516.1) | 36.8 (21.4, 52.2) | |
Grains | −60.5 (−68.9, −52.1) | −86.3 (−96.1, −76.5) | |
Legumes | −3.2 (−6.6, 0.3) | −18.0 (−22.7, −13.2) | |
Nuts and seeds | −8.9 (−11.8, −6.0) | −6.3 (−10.4, −2.1) | |
Vegetables | −1.0 (−3.0, 1.0) | 4.9 (1.7, 8.2) | |
Kimchi | 5.0 (3.8, 6.1) | −1.0 (−2.7, 0.6) | |
Fruit | −33.0 (−38.2, −27.7) | −62.7 (−70.4, −54.9) | |
Meat and its products | −44.9 (−53.2, −36.6) | 232.6 (207.1, 258.1) | |
Eggs | −1.5 (−3.8, 0.9) | −11.8 (−15.6, −8.0) | |
Fish and shellfish | 9.1 (4.5, 13.6) | 18.6 (10.1, 27.2) | |
Milk and dairy products | −42.3 (−47.5, −37.2) | −59.1 (−65.7, −52.4) | |
Oils | −10.3 (−13.4, −7.1) | −11.3 (−16.7, −5.8) | |
Soda | −9.5 (−11.9, −7.1) | −12.4 (−16.4, −8.4) | |
SSBs | −0.7 (−4.3, 3.0) | −18.2 (−23.6, −12.7) | |
Alcohol | −0.9 (−5.0, 3.2) | 594.7 (572.2, 617.2) | |
Nutrients | |||
Total energy (kcal/day) | −62.8 (−78.4, −47.1) | 171.3 (137.8, 204.7) | |
Protein (g/day) | −5.4 (−6.4, −4.3) | 8.3 (6.0, 10.6) | |
Fat (g/day) | −13.0 (−13.9, −12.1) | 0.6 (−1.5, 2.8) | |
Carbohydrate (g/day) | 15.5 (12.1, 18.8) | −102.7 (−107.9, −97.4) | |
Fiber (g/day) | −0.6 (−0.8, −0.4) | −1.7 (−2.0, −1.4) | |
Calcium (mg/day) | −51.4 (−62.7, −40.1) | −113.1 (−130.5, −95.7) | |
Vitamin A (μgRE/day) | −15.8 (−58.9, 27.2) | −96.3 (−167.2, −25.4) | |
Vitamin C (mg/day) | −11.1 (−15.2, −7.0) | −33.2 (−39.7, −26.6) |
Fast Food Consumption 2 | ||
---|---|---|
Non-Consumer | FF Consumer | |
(n = 17,173; 90.3%) | (n = 1844; 9.7%) | |
Fast food intake (% of energy) 3 | 0 | 13.27 (0.03, 84.13) |
Multivariable-adjusted OR | ||
Grain, fruit, and milk pattern | ||
Model 1 4 | 1.0 (reference) | 2.08 (1.83, 2.36) |
Model 2 | 1.0 | 2.00 (1.76, 2.27) |
White rice and kimchi pattern | ||
Model 1 | 1.0 | 0.37 (0.32, 0.42) |
Model 2 | 1.0 | 0.41 (0.35, 0.47) |
Meat and alcohol pattern | ||
Model 1 | 1.0 | 1.45 (1.23, 1.71) |
Model 2 | 1.0 | 1.21 (1.02, 1.43) |
FF Consumption 2 | Dietary Pattern 3 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
White Rice and Kimchi | Meat and Alcohol | |||
Overweight/obesity | ||||
Model 1 4 | 1.04 (0.92, 1.17) | 0.88 (0.82, 0.96) | 1.14 (1.01, 1.28) | |
Model 2 | 1.07 (0.94, 1.20) | 0.88 (0.81, 0.95) | 1.14 (1.01, 1.28) | |
Central obesity | ||||
Model 1 | 1.15 (0.97, 1.36) | 1.09 (0.99, 1.20) | 1.16 (1.01, 1.35) | |
Model 2 | 1.14 (0.96, 1.34) | 1.08 (0.98, 1.19) | 1.16 (1.00, 1.34) |
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Kim, D.-Y.; Ahn, A.; Lee, H.; Choi, J.; Lim, H. Dietary Patterns Independent of Fast Food Are Associated with Obesity among Korean Adults: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2014. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2740. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112740
Kim D-Y, Ahn A, Lee H, Choi J, Lim H. Dietary Patterns Independent of Fast Food Are Associated with Obesity among Korean Adults: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2014. Nutrients. 2019; 11(11):2740. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112740
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Do-Yeon, Ahleum Ahn, Hansongyi Lee, Jaekyung Choi, and Hyunjung Lim. 2019. "Dietary Patterns Independent of Fast Food Are Associated with Obesity among Korean Adults: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2014" Nutrients 11, no. 11: 2740. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112740