Landslide Susceptibility Assessment Based on Different MaChine Learning Methods in Zhaoping County of Eastern Guangxi
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Areas and Materials
2.1. Study Areas
2.2. Data Sources and Landslide Inventory Data
2.3. Classification of Evaluation Factors
3. Methods
3.1. Support Vector Machine (SVM) Model
3.2. Particle Swarm Optimization Support Vector Machine (PSO-SVM)
3.3. Random Forest (RF) Model
3.4. Weighted PSO-RF
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Evaluation Results
4.2. Evaluation Accuracy and Validation Analysis
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No. | Evaluation Factor | Classification |
---|---|---|
(a) | Slope (°) | 1-[0,7); 2-[7,13); 3-[13,19); 4-[19,25); 5-[25,34); 6-[34,50); 7-[50,70); 8-[70,76) |
(b) | Aspect (°) | 1-[337.5,22.5); 2-[22.5,67.5); 3-[67.5,112.5); 4-[112.5,157.5); 5-[157.5,202.5); 6-[205.2,247.5); 7-[247.5,292.5); 8-[292.5,337.5) |
(c) | Plan curvature | 1-[-25,-5); 2-[-5,-2.5); 3-[-2.5,-1); 4-[-1,0); 5-[0,1); 6-[1,2.5); 7-[2.5,5); 8-[5,28.9) |
(d) | Annual rainfall (mm) | 1-[0,1980); 2-[1980,2100); 3-[2100,2220); 4-[2220,2340); 5-[2340,2460); 6-[2460,2580); 7-[2580,2700); 8-[2700,2820) |
(e) | Normalized differential vegetation index (NDVI) | 1-[0,0.01); 2-[0.01,0.09); 3-[0.09,0.17); 4-[0.17,0.25); 5-[0.25,0.33); 6-[0.33,0.4); 7-[0.4,0.5); 8-[0.5,0.71) |
(f) | Stratum lithology | 0-River; 1-Quaternary; 2-carbonate rock; 5-clasolite intercalated with siliceous rocks; 6-clastic rock; 7-sandstone and shale; 8-granite or basal rocks |
(g) | Tectonic complexity | 1-[0,1.4); 2-[1.4,2.7); 3-[2.7,3.8); 4-[3.8,4.9); 5-[4.9,6); 6-[6,7.3); 7-[7.3,8.9); 8-[8.9,9.4) |
(h) | LULC | 1-cultivated land; 2-woodland; 3-grassland; 4-river and lake; 5-construction land |
(i) | Residential density | 1-[0,1.2); 2-[1.2,2.7); 3-[2.7,4.5); 4-[4.5,6.9); 5-[6.9,10.1); 6-[10.1,14.2); 7-[14.2,19.7); 8-[19.7,25) |
(j) | Road network density (km/km2) | 1-[0,3.2); 2-[3.2,4.7); 3-[4.7,6.1); 4-[6.1,7.8); 5-[7.8,9.7); 6-[9.7,11.7); 7-[11.7,13.9); 8-[13.9,14) |
(1) Initialization: |
The initial parameters of the PSO-SVM model are set, including species size, iteration times, learning factor, inertia weight, initial particle, and particle initial velocity. The particle vector represents a SVM model corresponding to different C and σ. |
(2) Optimization: |
In the process of particle optimization, each solution of the optimization problem is called a particle in the search space. The particle adaptation value (fi) is calculated according to the fitness function. Adaptive function is the measure basis of the selection individual, and the individual is evaluated by the fitness function. |
(3) Replacement: |
Based on the objective function, the adaptive value of each particle (fi), the population individual optimal solution fi(pbest), and the population global optimal solution fi(pgbest) were calculated and compared. If fi < fi(pbest), then the optimization solution of the previous round is replaced with the new adaptation value (fi), and the particles of the previous round is replaced with the new particles, and then the fi(pbest) of each particle is compared with the fi(pgbest) of all particles. If fi(pbest) < fi(pgbest), the optimal solution of each particle is used to replace the optimal solution of all the original particles, and the current state of the particles is saved at the same time. |
(4) Determination: |
If the fi of the individual in the population meets the requirements, or if the evolutionary algebra is terminated, then the calculation is ended, and the particle individual corresponds to the optimal C and σ combination, otherwise go to step (2) to continue the iteration. |
(5) Set Up the PSO-SVM Model: |
The global optimal PSO-SVM model is obtained by using the optimal parameters of the SVM with the optimal C and σ combination to train the training samples. The susceptibility of landslides is quantitatively evaluated and divided into five levels: extremely high, high, medium, low, and extremely low areas Figure 4b. |
(1) Initialization: |
Suppose D is an original training dataset of landslide susceptibility assessment factors, which is composed of M prediction attributes (M = 10) and a classification attribute Y (Y = 5). There are n (n = 3,581,859) different examples in D. |
(2) Get Multiple Training Datasets: |
The K new training subsets of {D1, D2, …, DK} were obtained by K times random sampling with replay from the original training dataset D by using the Bagging algorithm. At the same time, each of the K training subsets contains n instances, in which there is repetition. |
(3) Training to Generate Decision Tree: |
For each training subset Di (1 ≤ I ≤ K), the decision tree without pruning is generated by the following procedure: Firstly, let the number of predictive attributes in the training sample be M, F (F < M) attributes are randomly chosen from M to compose a random characteristic subspace Xi, and those as the split attribute datasets of the present node of the decision tree. In the process of generating the RF model, the value of F remains unaltered; Secondly, the node was split according to the optimal split attribute of each node selecting from the random feature subspace Xi by the decision tree generation algorithm; Thirdly, every tree grows completely and has no pruning process. The corresponding decision tree hi(Di) is generated by each training dataset Di; Fourthly, the RF model of {h1(D1), h2(D2), …, hi(Di)} was generated by combining all the generated decision trees. And the corresponding classification result of {C1(X), C2(X), …, CK(X)} is obtained by using testing of each decision tree hi(Di) with test dataset sample X; Finally, according to the classification results of K decision trees, the final classification results corresponding to the test dataset sample X was determined by classification results with a large number of decision trees by voting method. |
(4) Dividing Levels: |
According to the above steps, the landslide susceptibility of Zhaoping is divided into 5 levels Figure 4c. |
(1) Initialization: |
The initial parameters of the PSO-RF model are set, including the number of decision trees R, pruning threshold ε, number of predicted test samples X, and initial value of random attributes m. |
(2) Sampling: |
Using the Bootstrap algorithm, R training datasets are randomly produced, and X pre-test samples are selected in each training dataset. |
(3) Generating Decision Tree: |
A total of R decision trees are generated by using the rest of the samples of each training dataset. In the process of generating decision trees, m attributes are selected from all attributes as the decision attributes of the present node before each attribute is selected. |
(4) Determination: |
When the number of samples included in the node is less than the threshold ε, the node is taken as the leaf node, and the mode of the target attributes is returned as the classification result of the decision tree. |
(5) Setting Up the PSO-RFModel: |
When all decision trees are produced, each decision tree is pre-tested and its weights are calculated by using the equation (7): |
where is the classified correct number of samples of r decision trees, and X is the number of pre-tested samples. |
(6) Calculation of the Classification Results: |
The classification results of the model are calculated by Equation (8): |
(7) Optimization: |
Taking the classification results as the fitness values, the PSO algorithm is applied to optimize the parameters of Equation (6) iteratively and determine the parameters of the final RF model. |
(8) Running |
Finally, the optimized parameters are input into the model, and the output results of the model are obtained. According to the results, the susceptibility of landslides is divided into five levels Figure 4d. |
Model | The Proportion of Different Susceptibility Levels (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extremely High | High | Medium | Low | Extremely Low | |
SVM | 44.64 | 20.87 | 16.52 | 10.43 | 7.54 |
RF | 50.43 | 19.13 | 18.26 | 9.57 | 2.61 |
PSO-SVM | 53.33 | 21.16 | 7.83 | 6.38 | 11.30 |
PSO-RF | 54.78 | 21.74 | 15.07 | 4.35 | 4.06 |
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Kong, C.; Tian, Y.; Ma, X.; Weng, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Xu, K. Landslide Susceptibility Assessment Based on Different MaChine Learning Methods in Zhaoping County of Eastern Guangxi. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 3573. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183573
Kong C, Tian Y, Ma X, Weng Z, Zhang Z, Xu K. Landslide Susceptibility Assessment Based on Different MaChine Learning Methods in Zhaoping County of Eastern Guangxi. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(18):3573. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183573
Chicago/Turabian StyleKong, Chunfang, Yiping Tian, Xiaogang Ma, Zhengping Weng, Zhiting Zhang, and Kai Xu. 2021. "Landslide Susceptibility Assessment Based on Different MaChine Learning Methods in Zhaoping County of Eastern Guangxi" Remote Sensing 13, no. 18: 3573. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183573